Symptom analysis.

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Constipation(1) Neurological Disorders: Parkinson’s-Like Disease, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, stroke, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)-Like Disease, cerebral palsy, autonomic neuropathy
(2) Endocrine and Metabolic Conditions: Hypothyroidism, diabetes mellitus, hypercalcemia, chronic kidney disease, hyperparathyroidism, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, uremia
(3) Gastrointestinal Disorders: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), diverticular disease, colorectal cancer, Hirschsprung’s disease, chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction, solitary rectal ulcer syndrome, anal fissures, rectal prolapse, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
(4) Other Conditions: Celiac disease, systemic sclerosis (scleroderma), muscular dystrophy, neurogenic bowel dysfunction, depression, cognitive impairment.

Abdominal Distension(1) Gastrointestinal Disorders: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), celiac disease, lactose intolerance, constipation, Intestinal Obstruction, volvulus, Hirschsprung’s disease, toxic megacolon
(2) Hepatic and Pancreatic Conditions: Liver cirrhosis, ascites, pancreatitis
(3) Neoplastic Causes: Ovarian cysts, abdominal tumors, colorectal cancer, lymphoma
(4) Infectious and Inflammatory Conditions: Gastroenteritis, peritonitis, tuberculosis
(5) Other Conditions: Pregnancy, obesity, heart failure, kidney failure, hypothyroidism, aerophagia

Abdominal Pain(1) Gastrointestinal Disorders: Gastritis, gastroenteritis, gastric dilatation-volvulus (GDV), intestinal obstruction, intussusception, foreign body ingestion, colitis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), constipation, peritonitis, pancreatitis, hepatic lipidosis (cats), hepatic disease, neoplasia (e.g., lymphoma, adenocarcinoma)
(2) Urogenital Disorders: Pyometra, urinary tract infection (UTI), urolithiasis (bladder stones), cystitis, prostatic disease, Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones), acute kidney injury, urinary obstruction
(3) Reproductive Disorders: Dystocia, ovarian cysts, testicular torsion, uterine torsion
(4) Musculoskeletal Disorders: Intervertebral disc disease (IVDD), abdominal muscle strain, trauma
(5) Other Conditions: Abdominal trauma, peritonitis, hernia, neoplasia, systemic infections, hypoadrenocorticism (Addison's disease), diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)

Mucopurulent Nasal Discharge (1) Canine Distemper Virus (CDV): Viral infection in dogs causing mucopurulent discharge, fever, and neurological signs
(2) Canine Infectious Tracheobronchitis (Kennel Cough): Caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica, parainfluenza virus; discharge often progresses from serous to mucopurulent
(3) Canine Adenovirus Type 2: Part of the kennel cough complex; leads to nasal and ocular discharge
(4) Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 (FHV-1): Viral rhinotracheitis in cats causing conjunctivitis and mucopurulent nasal discharge
(5) Feline Calicivirus (FCV): Causes upper respiratory disease with nasal discharge and oral ulcers in cats
(6) Chlamydia felis: Bacterial infection in cats leading to conjunctivitis and nasal discharge
(7) Mycoplasma spp.: Opportunistic bacteria contributing to respiratory disease in dogs and cats
(8) Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP): Especially dry form may present with nasal discharge and ocular involvement
(9) Cryptococcosis: Fungal infection, especially in cats; causes mucopurulent nasal discharge and swelling over the nose
(10) Nasal Foreign Body: Causes irritation, sneezing, and often unilateral mucopurulent discharge
(11) Nasal Neoplasia: Tumors such as adenocarcinoma or lymphoma can cause chronic mucopurulent discharge, often unilateral
(12) Tooth Root Abscess (Upper Premolars/Molars): Dental infections can extend into nasal passages, causing discharge
(13) Chronic Rhinitis: Inflammation of the nasal passages due to allergies, irritants, or prior infections
(14) Secondary Bacterial Infections: Often complicate viral infections, turning serous discharge into mucopurulent

Mucopurulent Ocular Discharge (1) Conjunctivitis: Inflammation of the conjunctiva; commonly caused by bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus, Streptococcus), viruses, or allergens
(2) Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca (KCS / Dry Eye): Decreased tear production leads to thick, mucopurulent ocular discharge; common in dogs
(3) Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 (FHV-1): Viral infection in cats causing conjunctivitis, keratitis, and mucopurulent discharge
(4) Chlamydia felis: Bacterial cause of conjunctivitis and ocular discharge in cats
(5) Mycoplasma spp.: Opportunistic bacteria contributing to ocular discharge, especially in cats
(6) Feline Calicivirus (FCV): May cause conjunctivitis and ocular discharge along with oral ulcers
(7) Canine Distemper Virus (CDV): Systemic viral infection that may cause mucopurulent ocular and nasal discharge in dogs
(8) Entropion: Inward rolling of eyelids causes corneal irritation and secondary infection with discharge
(9) Ectopic Cilia / Distichiasis: Abnormally located eyelashes irritate the eye leading to discharge
(10) Corneal Ulceration: Can be associated with secondary infection and mucopurulent discharge
(11) Foreign Body (Eye): Presence of a foreign object can cause irritation, infection, and discharge
(12) Uveitis: Intraocular inflammation can lead to ocular discharge and discomfort
(13) Glaucoma: Increased intraocular pressure can be associated with ocular discharge
(14) Nasolacrimal Duct Obstruction: Leads to tear overflow and secondary infection producing mucopurulent discharge
(15) Trauma or Irritants: Exposure to smoke, dust, or injury can lead to inflammation and mucopurulent ocular discharge

Vomiting (1) Gastrointestinal Diseases: Gastritis, Gastric Dilatation-Volvulus (GDV), Foreign Body, Intestinal Obstruction, Intussusception, Parvoviral Enteritis, Pyloric Stenosis, Colitis, Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
(2) Infectious Diseases: Canine Parvovirus, Feline Panleukopenia, Canine Coronavirus, Feline Coronavirus, Rotavirus, Salmonellosis, Campylobacteriosis, Leptospirosis, Infectious Canine Hepatitis
(3) Parasitic Infections: Toxocariasis, Coccidiosis, Giardiasis, Ancylostomiasis, Ascaridiosis
(4) Toxins and Drugs: Rodenticide Toxicity, Chocolate Toxicity, Xylitol Toxicity, Grape/Raisin Toxicity, Ethylene Glycol Toxicity, NSAID Overdose, Chemotherapy Side Effects, Organophosphate Toxicity
(5) Metabolic and Systemic Disorders: Renal Failure, Hepatic Encephalopathy, Diabetic Ketoacidosis, Addison’s Disease (Hypoadrenocorticism), Feline Hyperthyroidism
(6) Pancreatic Diseases: Pancreatitis, Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency (EPI)
(7) Neurologic Causes: Vestibular Disease, Brain Trauma, Increased Intracranial Pressure
(8) Dietary Causes: Dietary Indiscretion, Food Hypersensitivity, Spoiled Food, Diet Change
(9) Motion Sickness: Common in puppies and sensitive cats during travel
(10) Neoplasia: Gastric Tumors, Lymphoma, Intestinal Neoplasia
(11) Pain or Stress: Severe Pain, Anxiety, Fear
(12) Endocrine Diseases: Hypercalcemia due to neoplasia or renal dysfunction

Coughing(1) Respiratory Infections: Canine infectious tracheobronchitis (kennel cough), canine influenza, feline calicivirus, Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 infection, bacterial pneumonia, fungal pneumonia
(2) Parasitic Diseases: Heartworm disease, lungworm infection (Aelurostrongylus abstrusus, Capillaria spp.)
(3) Airway Diseases: Chronic bronchitis, tracheal collapse (dogs), feline asthma, laryngeal paralysis
(4) Cardiac Disorders: Congestive heart failure, mitral valve disease, cardiomyopathy (especially in cats), pericardial effusion
(5) Neoplasia: Lung tumors, tracheal or bronchial neoplasia, metastatic disease to lungs
(6) Foreign Bodies and Irritants: Inhaled grass awns, smoke inhalation, environmental allergens, aspiration
(7) Other Causes: Pleural effusion, pulmonary edema, diaphragmatic hernia, eosinophilic bronchopneumopathy (dogs)

Head Pressing (1) Neurological Disorders: Brain tumor, encephalitis, meningitis, hydrocephalus, stroke, brain trauma, hepatic encephalopathy
(2) Metabolic and Toxic Conditions: Liver failure, hypoglycemia, electrolyte imbalances, toxin exposure (lead, pesticides, etc.)
(3) Infectious Diseases: Canine distemper, rabies, feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), toxoplasmosis
(4) Other Causes: Severe pain, vestibular disease, seizures, intracranial hemorrhage

Icterus (Jaundice) (1) Pre-hepatic Causes: Hemolytic anemia, immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA), Babesiosis, Mycoplasma haemofelis (cats), Heinz body anemia (e.g., from onion, acetaminophen toxicity), incompatible blood transfusion, zinc toxicity
(2) Hepatic Causes: Hepatitis, leptospirosis, hepatic lipidosis (cats), toxic hepatopathy, neoplasia (e.g., lymphoma, hepatocellular carcinoma), congenital portosystemic shunt, feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), cholangiohepatitis
(3) Post-hepatic (Obstructive) Causes: Cholelithiasis (gallstones), cholangitis, biliary obstruction (e.g., from neoplasia or pancreatitis), bile duct rupture or stricture, mucocele of the gallbladder, pancreatitis, pancreatic neoplasia

Hypersalivation (Ptyalism)(1) Oral and Dental Causes: Stomatitis, gingivitis, dental abscess, oral ulcers, foreign bodies (e.g., sticks, bones), neoplasia (oral tumors), fractured teeth
(2) Neurological Disorders: Rabies, tetanus, facial nerve paralysis, trigeminal nerve disorders, brainstem lesions
(3) Gastrointestinal and Esophageal Disorders: Esophagitis, megaesophagus, nausea, gastroesophageal reflux, hiatal hernia
(4) Toxins and Irritants: Caustic chemicals, plants (e.g., sago palm, philodendron), insecticides, heavy metals, toads (Bufotoxin), drug reactions (e.g., metronidazole)
(5) Systemic Illnesses: Hepatic encephalopathy, uremia (chronic kidney disease), infectious diseases (e.g., feline calicivirus, canine distemper)
(6) Anxiety and Behavioral Causes: Stress, motion sickness, fear-induced nausea
(7) Other Conditions: Sialocele (salivary mucocele), heat stroke, oral trauma, electric cord injury

Paralysis. (1) Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD): Common in chondrodystrophic dog breeds (e.g., Dachshunds), causing spinal cord compression
(2) Trauma: Spinal fractures, luxations, or nerve root avulsion due to vehicular accidents or falls
(3) Fibrocartilaginous Embolism (FCE): Acute spinal cord infarction typically in large breed dogs
(4) Degenerative Myelopathy: Progressive spinal cord degeneration, especially in German Shepherds
(5) Tick Paralysis: Caused by neurotoxins from ticks such as Ixodes or Dermacentor species
(6) Botulism: Caused by Clostridium botulinum toxin, leading to flaccid paralysis (rare in cats)
(7) Myasthenia Gravis: Autoimmune neuromuscular disorder causing weakness and possible paralysis
(8) Polyradiculoneuritis: Also known as Coonhound paralysis, immune-mediated, often following raccoon bite
(9) Neoplasia: Spinal cord tumors (e.g., meningioma, lymphoma), peripheral nerve sheath tumors
(10) Infectious Diseases: Distemper (dogs), FIP (cats), Toxoplasmosis, Neospora caninum
(11) Congenital Disorders: Spina bifida, atlantoaxial instability, caudal occipital malformation syndrome (COMS)
(12) Vascular Events: Ischemic myelopathy, spinal hemorrhage
(13) Metabolic and Toxic Causes: Hypokalemic polymyopathy (cats), lead poisoning, organophosphate toxicity

Blindness (1) Ocular Diseases: Cataracts, glaucoma, retinal detachment, progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), uveitis, corneal ulcers
(2) Neurological Disorders: Optic neuritis, brain tumors, stroke, encephalitis, trauma affecting optic pathways
(3) Systemic Diseases: Diabetes mellitus (leading to cataracts), hypertension (causing retinal hemorrhage), hypertension-related retinopathy
(4) Toxic and Nutritional Causes: Lead poisoning, taurine deficiency (cats), hypovitaminosis A

Head Tilt (1) Ear Disorders: Otitis media, otitis interna, ear mites, ear polyps
(2) Neurological Disorders: Vestibular disease (idiopathic or vestibular neuritis), brain tumors, stroke, encephalitis, trauma
(3) Systemic Diseases: Hypothyroidism (causing neuropathy), toxin exposure affecting the nervous system
(4) Other Causes: Vestibular labyrinthitis, hypothyroidism-related neuropathy, vestibular nerve dysfunction

Dry Harsh Cough (1) Respiratory Infections: Canine infectious tracheobronchitis (Kennel cough), feline upper respiratory infection
(2) Chronic Bronchitis: Inflammation of the airways causing persistent dry cough
(3) Tracheal Collapse: Common in small breed dogs causing harsh dry cough
(4) Cardiac Causes: Heart disease causing cough due to pulmonary edema or enlarged heart pressing on airways
(5) Other Causes: Foreign body in airway, neoplasia (tumors), lung fibrosis, chronic irritation or inflammation of the trachea or bronchi.

Hematuria (1) Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs): Bacterial infections of the bladder or urethra
(2) urolithiasis (bladder stones): Presence of urinary stones in the bladder, urethra, or kidneys
(3) Trauma: Injury to the urinary tract from accidents, surgery, or catheterization
(4) Neoplasia: Transitional cell carcinoma, prostatic tumors, or other urinary tract cancers
(5) Coagulopathies: Clotting disorders such as thrombocytopenia or anticoagulant toxicity
(6) Prostatic Disease (in dogs): Benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis
(7) Kidney Disease: Glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, renal trauma
(8) Congenital Abnormalities: Ectopic ureters, vascular anomalies
(9) Parasitic Infections: Capillaria plica or Dioctophyma renale infestation
(10) Idiopathic Renal Hematuria: Seen occasionally in young large-breed dogs

Exercise Intolerance (1) Cardiovascular Disorders: Dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (cats), congenital heart defects (e.g., PDA, pulmonic stenosis), heartworm disease
(2) Respiratory Disorders: Brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome, tracheal collapse, laryngeal paralysis, chronic bronchitis, feline asthma, pneumonia
(3) Musculoskeletal Disorders: Hip dysplasia, osteoarthritis, intervertebral disc disease, degenerative myelopathy, myopathies
(4) Neuromuscular Diseases: Myasthenia gravis, polymyositis, peripheral neuropathies
(5) Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders: Hypothyroidism (dogs), hyperthyroidism (cats), diabetes mellitus, Cushing’s disease, Addison’s disease
(6) Anemia: From chronic disease, blood loss, hemolysis, or nutritional deficiencies
(7) Obesity: Excess weight contributing to fatigue and decreased stamina
(8) Pain or Discomfort: From injury, arthritis, or internal disease
(9) Systemic Illnesses: Infections (e.g., ehrlichiosis, babesiosis), neoplasia
(10) Medication Side Effects: Sedatives, beta-blockers, or other drugs causing lethargy

Respiratory Distress (1) Upper Airway Disorders: Brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome, laryngeal paralysis, tracheal collapse, foreign body obstruction, neoplasia of the larynx or trachea
(2) Lower Airway Disorders: Chronic bronchitis, feline asthma, bronchopneumonia, allergic airway disease
(3) Pulmonary Parenchymal Diseases: Pneumonia (bacterial, viral, fungal), pulmonary edema (cardiogenic or non-cardiogenic), pulmonary contusions, neoplasia
(4) Pleural Space Diseases: Pleural effusion, pyothorax, hemothorax, pneumothorax, chylothorax
(5) Cardiac Disorders: Congestive heart failure (especially left-sided), pericardial effusion, cardiomyopathy
(6) Diaphragmatic Disorders: Diaphragmatic hernia, diaphragmatic paralysis
(7) Neuromuscular and CNS Disorders: Tick paralysis, myasthenia gravis, botulism, tetanus, cervical spinal cord trauma
(8) Metabolic and Systemic Conditions: Severe anemia, acidosis, sepsis, hyperthermia, pain or stress-induced tachypnea
(9) Toxins: Smoke inhalation, insecticide poisoning, opioid overdose, venomous bites (e.g., snakes, spiders)
(10) Obesity: Leading to restrictive breathing and reduced lung expansion

Gradual Weight Loss (1) Endocrine Disorders: Diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism (cats), hypoadrenocorticism (Addison's disease), insulinoma
(2) Gastrointestinal Disorders: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), intestinal parasites (e.g., hookworms, roundworms), gastrointestinal lymphoma, chronic gastroenteritis
(3) Systemic Infections: Feline immunodeficiency virus infection (FIV), feline leukemia virus (FeLV), fungal infections (e.g., histoplasmosis), ehrlichiosis, anaplasmosis
(4) Neoplasia: Lymphoma, adenocarcinoma, mast cell tumors, various metastatic cancers
(5) Chronic Organ Diseases: Chronic kidney disease (CKD), liver disease (e.g., hepatic lipidosis, cirrhosis), congestive heart failure
(6) Nutritional Deficiencies: Poor-quality diet, anorexia, Protein-Losing Enteropathy(PLE) or nephropathy
(7) Neurological or Musculoskeletal Conditions: Degenerative diseases or chronic pain reducing mobility and appetite
(8) Psychological or Behavioral Factors: Depression, anxiety, stress from environmental changes
(9) Dental Disease: Periodontal disease, stomatitis, tooth root abscesses causing chronic pain and reduced food intake
(10) Geriatric Changes: Age-related metabolic changes, decreased appetite, sarcopenia

Ascites (1) Cardiovascular Diseases: Right-sided congestive heart failure, pericardial effusion, cardiomyopathy (dilated in dogs, hypertrophic in cats), heartworm disease (dogs)
(2) Hepatic Disorders: Chronic hepatitis, hepatic cirrhosis, portosystemic shunt, hepatic neoplasia (e.g., hepatocellular carcinoma)
(3) Hypoalbuminemia: Protein-Losing Enteropathy(PLE), protein-losing nephropathy, severe malnutrition, liver failure
(4) Neoplastic Conditions: Abdominal tumors (e.g., lymphosarcoma, carcinomatosis), metastatic cancers affecting abdominal organs
(5) Infectious Diseases: Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP – especially the wet form), septic peritonitis
(6) Renal Disease: Nephrotic syndrome, chronic kidney disease with secondary hypoalbuminemia
(7) Trauma and Hemorrhage: Abdominal bleeding from trauma, ruptured organ, coagulopathy
(8) Lymphatic Obstruction: Lymphangiectasia, lymphatic neoplasia, abdominal lymph node enlargement
(9) Toxin Exposure: Aflatoxicosis, hepatotoxins causing liver failure and reduced oncotic pressure

Bilirubinuria (1) Hepatic Diseases: Hepatitis, hepatic lipidosis (cats), cirrhosis, cholangiohepatitis, liver neoplasia
(2) Hemolytic Disorders: Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA), hemotropic mycoplasmosis (e.g., Mycoplasma haemofelis in cats), Babesiosis (dogs), Heinz body anemia (cats)
(3) Obstructive Biliary Conditions: Extrahepatic bile duct obstruction (EHBO), gallbladder mucocele (dogs), cholelithiasis, cholangitis
(4) Toxin Exposure: Copper toxicosis (especially in Bedlington Terriers), aflatoxicosis, xylitol toxicity (dogs)
(5) Infectious Diseases: Leptospirosis (dogs), feline infectious peritonitis (FIP – liver involvement), toxoplasmosis
(6) Physiologic (Dogs Only): Mild bilirubinuria can be normal in dogs due to low renal threshold for bilirubin, especially in males
(7) Other Causes: Sepsis with liver involvement, pancreatitis with bile duct compression, hepatocellular damage from neoplasia or trauma.

Pale Mucous Membranes (1) Anemia: Iron deficiency anemia, immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA), blood loss anemia (e.g., due to trauma, gastrointestinal ulcers, parasites), aplastic anemia, anemia of chronic disease
(2) Shock and Poor Perfusion: Hypovolemic shock, cardiogenic shock, septic shock, severe dehydration
(3) Internal or External Hemorrhage: Hemangiosarcoma (especially splenic or hepatic), ruptured organ, coagulopathies (e.g., rodenticide toxicity, disseminated intravascular coagulation – DIC)
(4) Parasitic Infections: Heavy flea infestation (especially in puppies and kittens), hookworm infection (Ancylostoma spp.), Mycoplasma haemofelis (cats)
(5) Chronic Kidney Disease: Decreased erythropoietin production causing non-regenerative anemia
(6) Toxins: Zinc toxicity, onion/garlic toxicity, acetaminophen toxicity (especially in cats)
(7) Neoplastic Diseases: Bone marrow suppression from leukemia or metastatic cancers
(8) Others: Hypothermia, severe pain, congestive heart failure

Tachycardia (1) Physiological Causes: Stress, excitement, fear, pain, exercise
(2) Cardiac Disorders: Congestive heart failure, dilated cardiomyopathy, myocarditis, pericardial effusion, arrhythmias (e.g., supraventricular or ventricular tachycardia)
(3) Shock and Hypovolemia: Hemorrhagic shock, dehydration, hypovolemic shock, anaphylactic shock
(4) Anemia: Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA), blood loss anemia, chronic kidney disease-related anemia
(5) Respiratory Diseases: Hypoxia due to pneumonia, pulmonary edema, pleural effusion, upper airway obstruction
(6) Endocrine Disorders: Hyperthyroidism (especially in cats), pheochromocytoma
(7) Pain and Fever: Acute or chronic pain, infectious diseases causing fever
(8) Drug or Toxin Effects: Atropine, epinephrine, beta-agonists, methylxanthines (e.g., theobromine from chocolate)
(9) Metabolic Disorders: Hypoglycemia, electrolyte imbalances (e.g., hypokalemia, hypocalcemia).

Hematemesis (1) Gastrointestinal Ulcers: Gastric ulcers, duodenal ulcers, NSAID toxicity, corticosteroid use
(2) Foreign Body Ingestion: Sharp objects causing mucosal injury
(3) Neoplasia: Gastric tumors (e.g., adenocarcinoma, lymphoma), esophageal tumors
(4) Coagulopathies: Rodenticide toxicity, thrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), liver failure
(5) Severe Gastritis: Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis (HGE), uremic gastritis, infectious gastritis (e.g., parvovirus in dogs)
(6) Esophageal Disorders: Esophagitis, esophageal varices, esophageal trauma
(7) Toxin Ingestion: Heavy metals, caustic substances, chocolate, plants (e.g., lilies in cats)
(8) Systemic Diseases: Chronic kidney disease, liver disease with portal hypertension
(9) Trauma: Blunt abdominal trauma causing gastrointestinal hemorrhage.

Dysuria (1) Lower Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs): Bacterial cystitis, urethritis
(2) urolithiasis (bladder stones): Bladder stones, urethral stones
(3) Urethral Obstruction: Urethral plugs (especially in male cats), strictures, neoplasia
(4) Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease (FLUTD): Idiopathic cystitis, obstructive and non-obstructive forms
(5) Prostatic Disease (Dogs): Benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis, prostatic neoplasia
(6) Neoplasia: Transitional cell carcinoma of bladder or urethra
(7) Neurologic Disorders: Lower motor neuron bladder dysfunction, spinal cord injury affecting urination
(8) Trauma: Pelvic or urethral trauma causing swelling or obstruction
(9) Congenital Abnormalities: Ectopic ureters, urethral malformations.

Polyuria (1) Endocrine Disorders: Diabetes mellitus, hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing's disease), hypoadrenocorticism (Addison's disease), diabetes insipidus
(2) Renal Disease: Chronic kidney disease, acute kidney injury
(3) Liver Disease: Hepatic insufficiency, portosystemic shunt
(4) Medications: Diuretics, corticosteroids, excessive fluid therapy
(5) Psychogenic Polydipsia: Behavioral excessive water intake
(6) Infections: Pyelonephritis, leptospirosis
(7) Hypercalcemia: Secondary to malignancy or other causes
(8) Other Conditions: Hyperthyroidism (cats), hypokalemia.

Chronic Large-Bowel Diarrhea (1) Inflammatory Conditions: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), lymphocytic-plasmacytic colitis, eosinophilic colitis
(2) Infectious Causes: Clostridium perfringens overgrowth, Tritrichomonas foetus (cats), Campylobacter spp., fungal colitis (e.g., Histoplasma)
(3) Parasitic Infections: Trichuris vulpis (dogs), Giardia spp., hookworms
(4) Dietary Factors: Dietary intolerance, dietary allergy, abrupt diet changes
(5) Neoplastic Causes: Colorectal polyps, adenocarcinoma, lymphoma
(6) Antibiotic-Responsive Diarrhea: Chronic colitis responsive to tylosin or metronidazole
(7) Stress-Related Conditions: Stress colitis (especially in dogs)
(8) Other Conditions: Fiber-responsive colitis, irritable bowel syndrome (functional colonic disorder).

Diarrhea Containing Fresh Blood and Mucus (1) Parasitic Infections: Trichuris vulpis (whipworms in dogs), hookworms, Giardia spp.
(2) Bacterial Infections: Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli
(3) Inflammatory Conditions: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), lymphocytic-plasmacytic colitis, eosinophilic colitis
(4) Dietary Indiscretion or Allergy: Sudden diet change, dietary intolerance, food allergy
(5) Stress Colitis: Acute colitis triggered by stress (especially in dogs)
(6) Neoplastic Conditions: Colorectal polyps, rectal adenocarcinoma
(7) Foreign Body or Obstruction: Rectal or colonic irritation from foreign material
(8) Antibiotic-Responsive Diarrhea: Clostridial overgrowth responsive to tylosin or metronidazole.

Edematous Anus (1) Anal Sac Disorders: Anal sacculitis, anal sac abscess, impacted anal sacs
(2) Perianal Infections or Inflammation: Perianal fistula (common in German Shepherds), perianal dermatitis, bacterial or fungal infections
(3) Gastrointestinal Parasites: Whipworms (Trichuris vulpis in dogs), tapeworms, roundworms
(4) Rectal or Colonic Inflammation: Colitis, proctitis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
(5) Rectal Prolapse: Partial or complete protrusion of rectal tissue causing local swelling
(6) Neoplastic Conditions: Perianal adenoma, anal sac adenocarcinoma, rectal tumors
(7) Trauma or Irritation: Excessive licking or scooting, trauma from hard stools or foreign bodies
(8) Allergic Reactions: Perianal swelling due to food allergies or environmental allergens.

Rectal Prolapse (1) Gastrointestinal Parasites: Heavy infestation with roundworms, hookworms, whipworms
(2) Severe Diarrhea: Chronic or acute diarrhea causing excessive straining
(3) Constipation or Tenesmus: Prolonged straining due to fecal impaction, colitis, or proctitis
(4) Rectal or Colonic Disorders: Colitis, rectal tumors, rectal polyps
(5) Neurological Disorders: Spinal cord disease affecting defecation control, cauda equina syndrome
(6) Perineal Hernia: Weakness of pelvic diaphragm causing straining and prolapse
(7) Iatrogenic Causes: Post-surgical complications, improper enema administration
(8) Young Age: More common in puppies and kittens due to gastrointestinal infections or congenital weakness.

Black Tarry Feces (Melena) (1) Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage: Gastric ulcers, duodenal ulcers, gastrointestinal neoplasia, gastritis
(2) Coagulopathies: Rodenticide toxicity, immune-mediated thrombocytopenia, liver failure (reduced clotting factor production)
(3) Ingestion of Blood: Oral bleeding (e.g., dental disease, oral tumors), swallowing blood from epistaxis (nose bleeding)
(4) Medications: NSAIDs (e.g., carprofen, meloxicam), corticosteroids causing GI ulceration
(5) Systemic Disorders: Hepatic disease, chronic kidney disease (uremic gastritis), hypoadrenocorticism (Addison’s disease)
(6) Parasitic Infections: Hookworms or other blood-sucking intestinal parasites
(7) Foreign Bodies: GI obstruction or trauma leading to ulceration and bleeding.

Unsuccessful Attempts to Defecate (Tenesmus) (1) Colorectal Disorders: Constipation, colitis, rectal neoplasia, rectal stricture, anal sacculitis, proctitis
(2) Anorectal Conditions: Perineal hernia, anal sac abscess, anal gland impaction, rectal prolapse
(3) Obstructive Causes: Foreign bodies in rectum, pelvic fracture narrowing the pelvic canal, mass compressing colon or rectum
(4) Neurological Disorders: Lumbosacral stenosis, spinal cord injury affecting defecation reflex
(5) Parasitic Infections: Whipworms (Trichuris vulpis), heavy intestinal parasite load
(6) Inflammatory Conditions: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), granulomatous colitis
(7) Others: Painful defecation due to perianal fistulas, post-surgical pain in pelvic/anal region.

Lameness (1) Orthopedic Disorders: Osteoarthritis, hip dysplasia, elbow dysplasia, cranial cruciate ligament rupture, patellar luxation, panosteitis, osteochondritis dissecans (OCD), Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease
(2) Trauma-Related Conditions: Fractures, ligament sprains, muscle strains, joint dislocations, soft tissue injuries
(3) Inflammatory and Infectious Disorders: Septic arthritis, Lyme disease, anaplasmosis, immune-mediated polyarthritis (IMPA), myositis
(4) Neoplastic Conditions: Osteosarcoma, soft tissue sarcoma affecting limbs or joints
(5) Neurological Disorders: Intervertebral disc disease (IVDD), lumbosacral stenosis, nerve root tumors, degenerative myelopathy
(6) Congenital or Developmental Disorders: Angular limb deformities, dwarfism-related limb abnormalities
(7) Other Conditions: Nail bed infections, overgrown nails, paw pad injuries, arthritis secondary to obesity

Pica and Coprophagia (1) Nutritional Deficiencies: Iron deficiency, zinc deficiency, vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency, fiber deficiency
(2) Gastrointestinal Disorders: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), intestinal parasites (e.g., hookworms, roundworms), malabsorption syndromes
(3) Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders: Diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism (cats), Cushing’s disease (dogs)
(4) Neurological and Behavioral Conditions: Cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), boredom, anxiety, stress, attention-seeking behavior
(5) Environmental Factors: Lack of enrichment, insufficient physical activity, confinement or isolation
(6) Learned Behavior: Reinforced by owner attention or stress-relieving behavior
(7) Other Conditions: Starvation or previous history of neglect, inappropriate feeding schedules, mother dog/cat consuming feces to clean den area

Dyspnea (1) Upper Respiratory Tract Disorders: Brachycephalic airway syndrome, laryngeal paralysis, tracheal collapse, nasopharyngeal stenosis, foreign body obstruction, laryngeal tumors
(2) Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders: Pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, feline asthma, bronchiectasis, parasitic infections (e.g., lungworms), neoplasia
(3) Pleural Space Disorders: Pleural effusion, pneumothorax, pyothorax, chylothorax, hemothorax
(4) Pulmonary Parenchymal Diseases: Pulmonary edema (cardiogenic or non-cardiogenic), pulmonary contusion, pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary thromboembolism.
(5) Cardiac Conditions: Congestive heart failure, cardiomyopathy (e.g., hypertrophic in cats, dilated in dogs), pericardial effusion
(6) Abdominal Disorders Causing Diaphragmatic Compromise: Gastric dilatation-volvulus (GDV), ascites, diaphragmatic hernia, abdominal masses
(7) Hematologic and Metabolic Disorders: Severe anemia, acidosis, hypoxemia, hyperthermia, pain or stress-induced tachypnea

Hyperesthesia (1) Neurological Disorders: Feline hyperesthesia syndrome, intervertebral disc disease, spinal cord tumors, syringomyelia, epilepsy, encephalitis
(2) Musculoskeletal Conditions: Arthritis, muscle strain, myositis, trauma to spine or limbs
(3) Dermatological Causes: Flea allergy dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, external parasites (e.g., mites, fleas), allergic skin disease
(4) Behavioral and Psychological Factors: Anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, stress-induced hyperesthesia
(5) Other Conditions: Toxins (e.g., pyrethrin toxicity in cats), hepatic encephalopathy, feline infectious peritonitis (neurological form), hyperthyroidism (especially in cats)

Behavioral Changes (1) Neurological Disorders: Brain tumors, encephalitis, epilepsy, hydrocephalus, cognitive dysfunction syndrome (canine or feline dementia), head trauma
(2) Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders: Hyperthyroidism (especially in cats), hypothyroidism (especially in dogs), hepatic encephalopathy, diabetes mellitus, electrolyte imbalances
(3) Psychological and Environmental Factors: Anxiety, phobias, stress, changes in environment or routine, lack of socialization, past trauma or abuse
(4) Pain-Related Causes: Arthritis, dental disease, gastrointestinal discomfort, intervertebral disc disease, pancreatitis
(5) Toxicities: Lead poisoning, ingestion of psychoactive or toxic substances (e.g., marijuana, xylitol, organophosphates)
(6) Infectious Diseases: Rabies, toxoplasmosis, feline infectious peritonitis (neurological form), canine distemper (neurological form)

Paraparesis(weakness in hind legs) (1) Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD): Common in chondrodystrophic dog breeds; compression of spinal cord in thoracolumbar region
(2) Degenerative Myelopathy: Progressive spinal cord degeneration, especially in older large breed dogs (e.g., German Shepherds)
(3) Spinal Trauma: Fractures, luxations, or direct trauma to thoracolumbar spine causing spinal cord injury
(4) Fibrocartilaginous Embolism (FCE): Sudden spinal cord infarction often causing asymmetrical paraparesis in dogs
(5) Lumbosacral Stenosis (Cauda Equina Syndrome): Compression of nerves at the lumbosacral junction, common in large breed dogs
(6) Neoplasia: Spinal cord tumors (e.g., meningioma, lymphoma) causing compression or infiltration of spinal cord
(7) Inflammatory/Infectious Disorders: Diskospondylitis, meningomyelitis (e.g., from Toxoplasma, FIP in cats), granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis (GME)
(8) Congenital Disorders: Vertebral malformations (e.g., hemivertebrae, spina bifida), seen in young animals
(9) Nutritional Deficiencies: Thiamine deficiency, particularly in cats fed raw fish or unbalanced diets
(10) Toxicity: Tick paralysis, botulism, organophosphate toxicity leading to lower motor neuron signs

Serous or Mucopurulent Oculonasal Discharge (1) Canine Distemper Virus (CDV): Common in unvaccinated dogs; causes oculonasal discharge, fever, and neurologic signs
(2) Infectious Canine Tracheobronchitis (Kennel Cough): Caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica and viruses (e.g., parainfluenza); leads to nasal discharge and coughing
(3) Canine Adenovirus Type 2: Contributes to kennel cough; causes ocular and nasal discharge
(4) Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 (FHV-1): Causes feline viral rhinotracheitis; results in conjunctivitis, keratitis, and oculonasal discharge
(5) Feline Calicivirus (FCV): Respiratory virus causing nasal and ocular discharge, oral ulcers
(6) Chlamydia felis: Bacterial infection in cats; primarily causes conjunctivitis and serous to mucopurulent discharge
(7) Mycoplasma spp.: May cause conjunctivitis and upper respiratory signs in cats and dogs
(8) Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP): Especially dry form can cause ocular discharge and uveitis
(9) Foreign Body: Nasal or ocular foreign material can cause localized mucopurulent discharge
(10) Allergic Rhinitis: Non-infectious inflammation leading to serous nasal discharge
(11) Dental Disease: Infections involving upper teeth roots can cause nasal discharge
(12) Nasal Neoplasia: Tumors in nasal cavity (e.g., adenocarcinoma, lymphoma) may result in unilateral or bilateral discharge
(13) Cryptococcosis (Cats > Dogs): Fungal infection leading to mucopurulent nasal discharge, often with facial swelling

Tetraparesis (1) Cervical Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD): Compression of the cervical spinal cord can result in weakness or paralysis of all four limbs
(2) Atlantoaxial Subluxation: Instability or malformation of the first two cervical vertebrae, especially in toy breeds, leading to spinal cord compression and tetraparesis
(3) Cervical Spondylomyelopathy (Wobbler Syndrome): Common in large-breed dogs; cervical spinal cord compression causes progressive tetraparesis
(4) Trauma: Vertebral fractures or luxations causing spinal cord injury in the cervical region can result in tetraparesis
(5) Myasthenia Gravis: Neuromuscular disorder leading to episodic or progressive generalized weakness, including all four limbs
(6) Polyradiculoneuritis (Coonhound Paralysis): Immune-mediated inflammation of peripheral nerves causing acute flaccid tetraparesis
(7) Tick Paralysis: Neurotoxin from ticks (e.g., Ixodes, Dermacentor) interferes with neuromuscular transmission, leading to tetraparesis
(8) Botulism: Toxin from Clostridium botulinum causes generalized flaccid paralysis starting with the hindlimbs and progressing to tetraparesis
(9) Meningomyelitis: Inflammation of the spinal cord and meninges from infectious or immune-mediated causes can result in tetraparesis
(10) Neoplasia: Tumors affecting the cervical spinal cord or nerve roots can compress neural structures and lead to tetraparesis
(11) Ischemic Myelopathy (Fibrocartilaginous Embolism – FCE): Spinal cord infarction, though more commonly affecting one side, can rarely cause tetraparesis if in cervical region
(12) Hypokalemic Myopathy (especially in Cats): Severe hypokalemia leads to muscle weakness or paralysis, including all limbs
(13) Metabolic or Toxic Neuropathy: Conditions like diabetes mellitus or exposure to certain toxins (e.g., lead) can cause polyneuropathy with tetraparesis
(14) Thiamine Deficiency (Cats): Neurological dysfunction due to vitamin B1 deficiency can occasionally include tetraparesis
(15) Degenerative Myelopathy (advanced): Though typically starts in the hind limbs, severe progression can involve all limbs

Acute Vomiting After Eating or Drinking (1) Gastric Dilatation-Volvulus (GDV): Life-threatening condition in dogs causing rapid stomach distension and rotation, often with acute vomiting after eating
(2) Acute Gastritis: Inflammation of the stomach lining due to dietary indiscretion, spoiled food, toxins, or medications
(3) Foreign Body Ingestion: Obstruction or irritation of the gastrointestinal tract causing vomiting shortly after ingestion
(4) Food Allergies or Intolerances: Reaction to specific ingredients in food may trigger vomiting soon after eating
(5) Esophageal Disease (e.g., Megaesophagus): Dilated esophagus leads to regurgitation or vomiting immediately after food or water intake
(6) Pancreatitis (Acute): Inflammation of the pancreas often triggered by fatty meals, resulting in vomiting shortly after eating
(7) Intestinal Obstruction: Acute blockage from masses, intussusception, or volvulus causing vomiting soon after eating
(8) Acute Kidney Injury: Uremic toxins may stimulate vomiting after intake of food or water
(9) Infectious Gastroenteritis: Caused by viruses (e.g., parvovirus, coronavirus) or bacteria (e.g., Salmonella), often presenting with vomiting post-meal
(10) Toxin Ingestion: Ingestion of substances like antifreeze, plants, or chemicals may cause acute vomiting shortly after eating or drinking
(11) Pyloric Obstruction: Congenital or acquired narrowing at the stomach outlet, resulting in vomiting after eating
(12) Medication-Induced: Certain antibiotics, NSAIDs, or dewormers may cause vomiting shortly after oral administration
(13) Liver Disease (Acute Hepatitis or Toxicosis): Impaired hepatic function may cause vomiting after meals
(14) Acute Vestibular Disease: In cases of motion sickness or sudden vestibular dysfunction, vomiting may occur post-ingestion
(15) Addisonian Crisis (Hypoadrenocorticism): Acute adrenal insufficiency can trigger vomiting, especially following stress or food intake

Blood in Vomitus (Hematemesis) (1) Gastric Ulceration: Caused by NSAIDs, corticosteroids, or stress; leads to bleeding in the stomach
(2) Foreign Body Ingestion: Sharp objects may cause trauma and bleeding in the esophagus or stomach
(3) Esophagitis: Inflammation of the esophagus due to acid reflux, caustic ingestion, or chronic vomiting
(4) Gastric Neoplasia: Tumors such as adenocarcinoma or lymphoma can erode vessels causing bleeding
(5) Coagulopathies: Conditions like rodenticide toxicity, DIC, or liver failure lead to poor clotting and bleeding
(6) Liver Disease: Advanced hepatic dysfunction may cause coagulopathy and gastrointestinal bleeding
(7) Pancreatitis (Severe): Inflammation may extend to nearby vessels causing hemorrhagic vomiting
(8) Infectious Gastroenteritis: Parvovirus or bacterial infections like Clostridium may cause intestinal bleeding
(9) Duodenal Ulcers: Secondary to chronic disease, stress, or drugs; leads to blood in vomitus
(10) Thrombocytopenia: Low platelet count from immune-mediated disease or tick-borne illness can cause bleeding
(11) Toxin Ingestion: Substances like NSAIDs, corrosive chemicals, or anticoagulants can induce bleeding
(12) Heavy Metal Poisoning: Zinc or lead toxicity may irritate the GI lining and cause hemorrhage
(13) Severe Kidney Disease: Uremic gastritis from high toxin levels in blood may lead to gastric bleeding
(14) Megaesophagus with Regurgitation: If complicated by esophagitis or ulceration, blood may appear
(15) Trauma: Direct injury to the abdomen or GI tract may lead to internal bleeding and hematemesis

Weak hind leg, periodically paralysis. (1) Narcolepsy-Cataplexy Syndrome: A primary neurological disorder in dogs (especially Doberman Pinschers, Labrador Retrievers, and Dachshunds) characterized by sudden loss of muscle tone often triggered by excitement or eating
(2) Congenital Narcolepsy: Inherited in some breeds; involves dysfunction of the hypocretin (orexin) system in the brain
(3) Secondary Narcolepsy-Cataplexy: May be associated with other neurological diseases, trauma, or brain tumors affecting the hypothalamus or brainstem
(4) Hypocretin (Orexin) Deficiency: A key underlying factor in most forms of narcolepsy with cataplexy in dogs
(5) Immune-Mediated Encephalitis: Inflammation of brain tissue can occasionally present with episodic muscle collapse
(6) Storage Diseases: Rare inherited metabolic disorders (e.g., Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinosis) that can include cataplexy-like symptoms
(7) Head Trauma: Traumatic brain injury affecting sleep-wake regulation centers may result in episodic collapse mimicking cataplexy

Hemorrhagic Urethral Discharge (1) urolithiasis (bladder stones): Bladder or urethral stones causing mucosal irritation or trauma
(2) Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Severe or chronic infections may damage the urethral lining, leading to bleeding
(3) Prostatic Disease (Dogs): Prostatitis, prostatic cysts, or neoplasia can cause bloody discharge from the urethra
(4) Neoplasia: Tumors of the bladder, prostate, urethra, or vagina may cause hemorrhagic discharge
(5) Urethral Trauma: Iatrogenic (e.g., catheterization), accidents, or mating injuries
(6) Coagulopathies: Conditions such as thrombocytopenia or rodenticide toxicity may lead to spontaneous bleeding
(7) Urethritis: Inflammation of the urethra from infection or autoimmune causes
(8) Penile or Vaginal Inflammation/Infection: May appear as urethral bleeding due to anatomical proximity

Purulent Urethral Discharge (1) Bacterial Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Common cause in both dogs and cats, especially with ascending infections from the perineal area
(2) Prostatitis (Dogs): Bacterial infection of the prostate gland, often seen in intact males
(3) Urethritis: Inflammation of the urethra due to infection, trauma, or uroliths
(4) Pyometra (Female Dogs and Cats): Closed-cervix pyometra may cause overflow purulent discharge through the urethra
(5) Urinary Tract Stones (Urolithiasis): Stones causing irritation or secondary infections may lead to purulent discharge
(6) Neoplasia of the Urogenital Tract: Tumors of the bladder, prostate, or urethra can cause infection and purulent discharge
(7) Congenital Urogenital Defects: May predispose to chronic infection and intermittent discharge
(8) Penile or Vaginal Infections: Local infections may mimic urethral discharge, particularly in intact animals

Arched Back (1) Abdominal Pain (Acute Abdomen): Gastroenteritis, pancreatitis, peritonitis, or intestinal obstruction can cause pain-induced posturing
(2) Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD): Compression of spinal nerves may cause back pain, leading to an arched posture
(3) Spinal Trauma: Injuries to the spine from accidents or falls may lead to pain and arching
(4) Meningitis or Myelitis: Inflammation of the meninges or spinal cord causes pain and stiffness
(5) Pancreatitis: Severe abdominal pain may result in an arched posture ("praying position")
(6) Urinary Tract Obstruction: Pain from urinary blockage or bladder distension can cause arching
(7) Constipation or Tenesmus: Straining to defecate may cause arching due to discomfort
(8) Discospondylitis: Infection of the intervertebral disc space and adjacent vertebral endplates
(9) Neoplasia (Spinal or Abdominal): Tumors causing discomfort or neurologic deficits
(10) Hepatobiliary Disease: Liver pain (e.g., hepatitis or hepatic abscess) may lead to arching

Stiff Gait (1) Degenerative Joint Disease (Osteoarthritis): Chronic joint inflammation leads to stiffness, especially after rest
(2) Hip Dysplasia: Malformation of the hip joint causes pain and restricted movement
(3) Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD): Spinal cord compression can cause stiffness and neurologic deficits
(4) Meningitis or Meningoencephalitis: Inflammation of the central nervous system can lead to rigid movement
(5) Tetanus: Clostridium tetani toxin causes generalized muscle rigidity and stiff gait
(6) Polymyositis: Inflammation of multiple muscles results in weakness and stiffness
(7) Spondylosis Deformans: Bony growths along the spine can restrict flexibility and cause stiffness
(8) Myasthenia Gravis (less common presentation): Muscle fatigue and weakness may manifest with stiffness early in movement
(9) Hypothyroidism (Dogs): Associated with neuromuscular dysfunction and stiffness
(10) Tick Paralysis (early stages): May initially cause stiffness before progressing to flaccid paralysis

Scrotal Enlargement (1) Testicular Tumors: Seminoma, Sertoli cell tumor, interstitial cell tumor
(2) Orchitis and Epididymitis: Infection or inflammation of testis and epididymis
(3) Scrotal Hernia: Protrusion of abdominal contents into scrotum causing swelling
(4) Hydrocele: Accumulation of fluid within the tunica vaginalis
(5) Hematocele: Blood accumulation in the scrotal sac due to trauma
(6) Scrotal Abscess: Localized infection leading to pus formation
(7) Cryptorchidism (enlarged retained testicle): Undescended testicle may enlarge or become neoplastic
(8) Scrotal Edema: Generalized swelling due to heart failure, lymphatic obstruction, or trauma
(9) Testicular Torsion: Twisting of spermatic cord causing acute swelling and pain
(10) Neoplasia of Scrotal Skin: Tumors arising from scrotal skin or subcutis can cause enlargement

Pollakiuria(frequent urination) (1) Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Common cause of frequent urination due to inflammation and irritation
(2) urolithiasis (bladder stones): Bladder or urethral stones causing irritation and incomplete voiding
(3) Feline Idiopathic Cystitis (FIC): Sterile inflammation of the bladder common in cats
(4) Bladder Neoplasia: Transitional cell carcinoma or other tumors causing irritation or obstruction
(5) Prostatic Disease (Dogs): Benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis, or prostatic neoplasia
(6) Diabetes Mellitus: Osmotic diuresis from glucosuria leading to frequent urination
(7) Chronic Kidney Disease: Increased urine production with more frequent voiding
(8) Hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing’s Disease): Causes polyuria and potentially pollakiuria
(9) Bladder Trauma or Irritation: From surgery, catheterization, or trauma
(10) Neurologic Disorders: Disruption of normal micturition reflex causing frequent attempts to urinate

Stranguria(painful and difficult urination) (1) Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Inflammation of the bladder and urethra causing painful and difficult urination
(2) urolithiasis (bladder stones): Bladder or urethral stones obstructing urine flow
(3) Feline Idiopathic Cystitis (FIC): A common cause of painful urination in cats without infection
(4) Urethral Obstruction: Especially in male cats, due to plugs, crystals, or stones
(5) Bladder Neoplasia: Tumors like transitional cell carcinoma causing inflammation or blockage
(6) Prostatic Disease (Dogs): Enlarged prostate compressing urethra causing difficulty urinating
(7) Urethritis: Inflammation of the urethra due to infection or trauma
(8) Trauma to Lower Urinary Tract: Injury to bladder or urethra causing pain and straining
(9) Neurologic Disorders: Spinal Cord or Peripheral Nerve Dysfunction affecting bladder emptying

Chronic Diarrhoea. (1) Infectious Causes: Giardiasis, Tritrichomonas foetus (cats), Cryptosporidiosis, chronic bacterial overgrowth, Feline coronavirus (FCoV), parvovirus (chronic cases), fungal enteritis (e.g., histoplasmosis)
(2) Inflammatory and Immune-Mediated Disorders: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), food-responsive enteropathy, antibiotic-responsive enteropathy, lymphocytic-plasmacytic enteritis
(3) Parasitic Infections: Whipworms (Trichuris vulpis), hookworms, roundworms (chronic infestations)
(4) Dietary Causes: Food intolerance, food allergy, dietary indiscretion, poor-quality diet
(5) Neoplastic Conditions: Lymphoma, adenocarcinoma, mast cell tumors (GI tract)
(6) Malabsorption and Maldigestion Syndromes: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), Protein-Losing Enteropathy(PLE)
(7) Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders: Hyperthyroidism (cats), hypoadrenocorticism (Addison’s disease), hepatic insufficiency
(8) Other Conditions: Chronic intussusception, partial GI obstruction, intestinal fibrosis, motility disorders

Unilateral Mucopurulent Nasal Discharge (1) Infectious Causes: Nasal aspergillosis (dogs), bacterial rhinitis, chronic upper respiratory tract infection
(2) Neoplastic Conditions: Nasal adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, lymphoma
(3) Foreign Bodies: Grass awns, plant material, or other foreign material lodged in nasal passage
(4) Dental Disease: Tooth root abscess (especially upper 4th premolar), oronasal fistula
(5) Fungal Infections: Cryptococcosis (more common in cats), nasal aspergillosis
(6) Congenital/Structural Abnormalities: Nasal polyps (more common in cats), nasal septal deviation
(7) Trauma: Nasal bone fracture or injury leading to secondary infection

Testicular Enlargement in Dogs and Cats (1) Causes:
• Testicular Tumors: Sertoli cell tumor, interstitial (Leydig) cell tumor, seminoma — common in older, intact male dogs; rare in cats.
• Orchitis/Epididymitis: Inflammation of testis or epididymis often due to bacterial infection (e.g., Brucella canis in dogs).
• Testicular Torsion: Twisting of the spermatic cord, usually in retained (cryptorchid) testes.
• Scrotal Trauma or Hematoma: May lead to swelling, pain, or bruising.
• Cryptorchidism: Undescended testicle prone to neoplasia and torsion.
(2) Clinical Signs:
• Unilateral or bilateral swelling of the testes.
• Pain or discomfort, especially if due to infection or torsion.
• Behavioral changes, feminization syndrome (Sertoli cell tumor).
(3) Diagnosis:
• Physical examination and palpation of testes.
• Ultrasound of scrotal contents.
• Fine-needle aspiration or biopsy (with caution in suspected tumors).
• Bloodwork, hormone assays, and Brucella testing in dogs.
(4) Treatment:
• Neoplasia: Bilateral or unilateral orchiectomy (castration) is the treatment of choice. Malignant tumors may require staging and adjunct therapy.
• Infectious Orchitis/Epididymitis: Antibiotic therapy based on culture/sensitivity. Castration is often curative and preferred to prevent spread.
• Testicular Torsion: Emergency surgical removal of affected testicle.
• Trauma or Hematoma: Supportive care or surgical intervention depending on severity.
(5) Prevention:
• Early neutering prevents most causes including tumors, torsion, and infections.
• Routine examination of intact males, especially older dogs.
Note: Testicular enlargement is more common and clinically significant in dogs than cats.

Canine Distemper Biphasic fever, serous to mucopurulent nasal and ocular discharge, coughing, vomiting, diarrhea, myoclonus, seizures, ataxia, and hyperkeratosis of nasal planum and footpads ("hard pad disease").
Treatment Primarily supportive: fluids, nutritional support, antipyretics, and broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate) for secondary bacterial infections. For seizures, use diazepam or phenobarbital. Myoclonus may require levetiracetam or gabapentin. Immune stimulants (e.g., interferon omega) may be helpful in early cases. Isolate affected animals and ensure thorough disinfection.

Tropical Canine Pancytopenia Profound anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia with pallor, petechiae, ecchymoses, epistaxis (nose bleeding), pyrexia, lethargy, and increased susceptibility to secondary infections. Commonly associated with Ehrlichia, Babesia, or co-infections with other tick-borne agents.
Treatment Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO BID for 21–28 days; imidocarb dipropionate 6.6 mg/kg IM or SC, repeat after 14 days if Babesia is suspected. For severe anemia, blood transfusions may be necessary. In immune-mediated cases, prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO. Broad-spectrum antibiotics for neutropenia. Supportive care with liver protectants, gastroprotectants, and strict tick control using isoxazolines. Monitor CBC and organ function weekly.

Canine Filariasis (Non-heartworm) Swelling, lymphangitis, dermatitis, lameness, and occasionally asymptomatic. Often presents with a history of mosquito exposure, especially in tropical or subtropical regions.
Treatment Ivermectin 0.2–0.4 mg/kg PO SID for 2–4 weeks, depending on severity. In cases of localized adult worms, surgical excision may be necessary. Consider repeat treatment for persistent microfilaria. Supportive care includes anti-inflammatory medications for swelling and analgesia as needed.

Leishmaniasis Cutaneous form: ulcerative skin lesions, alopecia, scaling, and secondary infections. Visceral form: weight loss, lethargy, lymphadenopathy, ocular issues (uveitis), epistaxis (nose bleeding), and renal dysfunction (e.g., proteinuria, azotemia). Common in dogs with exposure to sandflies in endemic regions.
Treatment First-line therapy: Meglumine antimoniate (50 mg/kg/day IM for 28 days) or miltefosine (2–3 mg/kg PO SID for 4–6 weeks). Combination therapy with allopurinol (10 mg/kg PO BID) for relapse prevention. Lifelong treatment may be required for visceral leishmaniasis, with regular renal and hepatic monitoring. Vector control is critical; recommend insecticide-impregnated collars, repellents, and avoidance of peak sandfly activity.

Feline Hyperthyroidism Weight loss despite increased appetite, hyperactivity, vomiting, and diarrhea; common in older cats due to overproduction of thyroid hormone.
Treatment Options include daily oral antithyroid medications (e.g., methimazole), radioactive iodine therapy, surgical thyroidectomy, and dietary management with iodine-restricted food; regular monitoring of thyroid levels is essential.

Canine Osteoarthritis Joint stiffness, lameness, reluctance to exercise, and pain; degenerative joint disease common in aging dogs.
Treatment Weight management, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), joint supplements (e.g., glucosamine and chondroitin), physical therapy, and in severe cases, surgical intervention.

Feline Diabetes Mellitus Increased thirst and urination, weight loss despite increased appetite, lethargy, and poor coat condition; due to insulin deficiency or resistance.
Treatment Twice-daily insulin injections (e.g., glargine 0.25–0.5 U/kg SC BID); dietary management with low-carbohydrate diets; regular blood glucose monitoring.

Canine Epilepsy Recurrent seizures, which may be generalized or focal; often idiopathic in young to middle-aged dogs.
Treatment Long-term anticonvulsant therapy with phenobarbital (2–4 mg/kg PO BID) or potassium bromide; regular monitoring of drug levels and liver function.

Canine Pancreatitis Vomiting, abdominal pain, lethargy, and anorexia; inflammation of the pancreas often associated with high-fat diets.
Treatment Supportive care including intravenous fluids, antiemetics (e.g., maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID), analgesics, and dietary fat restriction; hospitalization in severe cases.

Feline Asthma Coughing, wheezing, difficulty breathing, and lethargy; chronic inflammation of the airways often triggered by allergens.
Treatment Bronchodilators and corticosteroids administered via inhalers or orally; minimizing exposure to environmental allergens; regular veterinary monitoring to manage condition.

Tropical Canine Dermatitis (Allergic or Parasitic) Severe pruritus, erythema, alopecia, excoriations, lichenification, and secondary pyoderma. Common triggers include flea allergy dermatitis, atopy, and food hypersensitivity.
Treatment Administer isoxazoline-class ectoparasiticides (e.g., fluralaner or afoxolaner) for flea control. Prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID may be used short-term for inflammation; antihistamines (e.g., cetirizine 1 mg/kg PO SID) for mild cases. Use chlorhexidine-based or antiseborrheic shampoos twice weekly. In recurrent atopy, consider allergen-specific immunotherapy. Implement strict flea control in the environment.

Canine Myiasis (Fly Larvae Infestation) Painful, foul-smelling wounds containing visible maggots, with swelling, erythema, necrotic tissue, and signs of systemic illness in severe cases.
Treatment Thorough manual removal of larvae under sedation or anesthesia. Lavage wounds with antiseptics (e.g., diluted povidone-iodine), followed by topical antimicrobial ointment. Administer ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg SC or PO once (off-label use). Use systemic antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg BID) if infection is present. Maintain wound hygiene and prevent re-infestation via environmental fly control.

Fungal Dermatitis (Malassezia or Dermatophytosis) Chronic pruritus, erythematous or hyperpigmented skin, oily or greasy coat, musty odor, scaling, alopecia, and recurring otitis externa. Commonly worsens in warm, humid climates.
Treatment Topical antifungal shampoos containing chlorhexidine 2–4% and miconazole or ketoconazole, applied 2–3 times weekly. For moderate to severe or recurrent cases, use oral itraconazole at 5–10 mg/kg PO SID or ketoconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID for 3–4 weeks. Monitor liver enzymes during systemic therapy. Address underlying allergies or endocrine disorders for long-term control.

Canine Gastrointestinal Parasitosis (Giardia, Coccidia) Loose, malodorous or greasy diarrhea, flatulence, bloating, intermittent vomiting, weight loss, and failure to thrive. Often seen in puppies or immunocompromised animals exposed to contaminated water or environments.
Treatment For Giardia: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 5 days, or metronidazole 25 mg/kg PO BID for 5–7 days. For Coccidia: Sulfadimethoxine 55 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days. Reinforce with strict hygiene, daily removal of feces, and disinfection of living areas. Bathe animal to remove cysts from fur and prevent reinfection.

Canine Tropical Pancytopenia Syndrome Marked anemia (pale mucous membranes), leukopenia, thrombocytopenia with petechiae, fever, lethargy, anorexia, and heightened susceptibility to opportunistic infections. Typically associated with co-infections from vector-borne agents like Ehrlichia, Babesia, or Anaplasma.
Treatment Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID–BID for 21–28 days. Imidocarb dipropionate 6.6 mg/kg IM or SC, repeated after 14 days if Babesia is involved. Use corticosteroids (e.g., prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID) only in immune-mediated cytopenia. Consider broad-spectrum antibiotics if neutropenia is present. Provide supportive care: IV fluids, blood transfusion if PCV <20%, gastroprotectants, and nutritional support. Weekly CBC monitoring is essential. Maintain tick prevention with isoxazolines.

Canine Babesiosis Acute hemolytic anemia, icterus, dark red or brown urine (hemoglobinuria), fever, lethargy, pale mucous membranes, splenomegaly, and tachypnea. Often transmitted via Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks in tropical regions.
Treatment Imidocarb dipropionate 6.6 mg/kg IM or SC, repeated once after 14 days for Babesia canis. For Babesia gibsoni, use a combination of atovaquone (13.3 mg/kg PO TID) and azithromycin (10 mg/kg PO SID) for 10 days. Provide IV fluids, antipyretics, and blood transfusions (PCV <20%). Monitor CBC and renal function weekly. Tick prevention is critical.

Canine Heartworm Disease (Dirofilaria immitis) Progressive cough, exercise intolerance, dyspnea, weight loss, ascites, and signs of right-sided heart failure. Severe cases may present with caval syndrome (sudden collapse, hemoglobinuria).
Treatment Melarsomine dihydrochloride 2.5 mg/kg IM deep in epaxial muscles (2-injection protocol: day 0 and 30, or 3-injection protocol: day 0, 30, 31). Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO BID for 4 weeks to eliminate Wolbachia. Start monthly macrocyclic lactones (e.g., ivermectin 6 mcg/kg PO) prior to adulticide. Enforce strict exercise restriction to reduce risk of pulmonary embolism. Corticosteroids may be used to manage inflammation.

Canine Mange (Sarcoptic & Demodectic) Severe pruritus (especially with Sarcoptes), patchy alopecia, erythema, crusting, malodor, and thickened skin. Sarcoptic mange causes intense itching and is highly contagious. Demodectic mange often occurs in immunocompromised or juvenile dogs.
Treatment Isoxazoline-class drugs (e.g., fluralaner 25–50 mg/kg PO every 8–12 weeks, sarolaner 2–4 mg/kg PO monthly) are highly effective. Ivermectin 0.3–0.6 mg/kg PO SID (not for MDR1-sensitive breeds). Lime sulfur dips or amitraz for topical treatment. Use systemic antibiotics for secondary pyoderma and anti-inflammatories if needed.

Canine Ticks and Tick-borne Fever Fever, lethargy, anorexia, enlarged lymph nodes, pale mucous membranes, joint pain, and visible ticks. Advanced cases may show pancytopenia, epistaxis (nose bleeding), or neurologic signs from co-infections like Ehrlichia, Anaplasma, or Babesia.
Treatment Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO BID for 21–28 days is first-line. Add imidocarb dipropionate 6.6 mg/kg IM or SC every 14 days for suspected babesiosis. Apply isoxazolines (e.g., fluralaner) for tick control. Remove ticks carefully, and disinfect the environment. Consider corticosteroids if immune-mediated cytopenias arise.

Canine Dermatophytosis (Ringworm) Circular alopecia, scaling, broken hairs, crusting, and mild to moderate itching. Zoonotic potential. Lesions often appear on the face, limbs, or tail. More frequent in young, stressed, or immunosuppressed animals in humid climates.
Treatment Topical therapy with miconazole-chlorhexidine or enilconazole shampoos twice weekly. Oral itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID or terbinafine 20–30 mg/kg SID for 4–6 weeks. Clip hair around lesions and decontaminate environment with bleach (1:10 dilution). Treat all in-contact animals if outbreaks occur.

Canine Tick Paralysis (Ixodid Ticks) Rapidly progressive ascending flaccid paralysis, often starting in the hindlimbs and potentially progressing to respiratory failure. Lethargy, incoordination, and voice changes may precede paralysis. Common in regions with Ixodes holocyclus and Dermacentor species.
Treatment Immediate, thorough tick removal is essential. Supportive care includes IV fluids and thermal support. In cases of respiratory distress, provide oxygen therapy or mechanical ventilation. In endemic regions (e.g., Australia), tick antiserum may be lifesaving. Avoid excessive handling and stress during recovery.

Canine Melioidosis High, recurrent fever, deep abscesses (liver, spleen, skin), chronic draining wounds, pneumonia, joint swelling, and CNS signs (seizures, ataxia). Endemic in tropical Asia and northern Australia, especially during the rainy season. Caused by Burkholderia pseudomallei.
Treatment Acute phase: Ceftazidime 40 mg/kg IV TID for 10–14 days. Chronic eradication: Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 15–30 mg/kg PO BID for 3–6 months. Drain abscesses surgically if needed. Prognosis guarded; relapses common without full-duration therapy.

Canine Fungal Pneumonia (Blastomycosis) Persistent productive cough, exercise intolerance, progressive weight loss, draining skin nodules, ocular inflammation (uveitis, retinal detachment), and shifting-leg lameness. Infection acquired from inhaling Blastomyces dermatitidis spores in moist, wooded, or riverine environments.
Treatment Itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID for 60–90 days minimum or until 1 month past clinical resolution. Severe systemic cases: Amphotericin B deoxycholate 0.5–1 mg/kg IV EOD with close renal monitoring. Supportive care includes oxygen therapy and anti-inflammatories.

Canine Rickettsiosis (Tropical Canine Spotted Fever) Acute high fever, widespread petechiae or ecchymoses, joint swelling, vomiting, neurological abnormalities (ataxia, seizures), and vasculitis. Caused by Rickettsia rickettsii or related species and transmitted by tropical tick vectors.
Treatment Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID for 14–21 days is the treatment of choice. IV fluids for dehydration and NSAIDs for joint pain. Prevent reinfection through strict tick control measures (e.g., fluralaner or sarolaner).

Canine Blastomycosis(Systemic Mycosis, Canine Fungal Pneumonia) Chronic cough, labored breathing, weight loss, fever, draining skin lesions, ocular signs (uveitis, retinal detachment), and bone pain or lameness. Frequently found in dogs exposed to moist, acidic soil near water sources where Blastomyces dermatitidis is endemic.
Treatment Itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID for 60–90 days or until 30 days after clinical resolution. In severe disseminated cases, initiate with Amphotericin B lipid complex 0.5–1 mg/kg IV EOD (up to 16 treatments) with renal monitoring. Supportive therapy includes oxygen supplementation, analgesics, and anti-inflammatories. Regular thoracic radiographs and liver enzyme monitoring are advised during antifungal therapy.

Canine Hepatozoonosis Recurring fever, intense muscle pain, hyperesthesia, gait abnormalities, mucopurulent ocular discharge, progressive weight loss, and leukocytosis. Caused by ingestion of infected ticks (especially Rhipicephalus sanguineus).
Treatment Triple therapy: clindamycin 10–12 mg/kg PO BID, trimethoprim-sulfa 15 mg/kg PO BID, and pyrimethamine 0.25 mg/kg PO SID for 14 days. Follow with decoquinate 10–20 mg/kg PO BID for long-term suppression (up to 2 years). NSAIDs for pain and anti-inflammatory relief as needed.

Tropical Canine Filariasis Chronic dermatitis, pruritus, subcutaneous nodules, ocular abnormalities, and systemic malaise. Caused by Brugia pahangi, Brugia malayi, or Acanthocheilonema reconditum and transmitted by mosquitoes.
Treatment Ivermectin 0.2–0.4 mg/kg PO monthly; doxycycline 10 mg/kg SID for 4 weeks to target Wolbachia endosymbionts. Monitor for anaphylactic reactions post-treatment. Vector control with mosquito repellents is essential.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) Intermittent fever, shifting leg lameness, protein-losing nephropathy (glomerulonephritis), facial ulcers, crusty nasal dermatitis, and hemolytic anemia. Immune-mediated, affects multiple organ systems in dogs and occasionally cats.
Treatment Immunosuppressive therapy: Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO, tapered gradually. In refractory cases, add azathioprine 2 mg/kg/day PO (dogs only) or cyclosporine 5 mg/kg/day. Manage renal and skin complications with adjunct therapies. Regular CBC and biochemistry monitoring is essential.

Hyperlipidemia (especially in Miniature Schnauzers)Most prominent signs include postprandial vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, and in severe cases, seizures or lipid retinal deposits. Hyperlipidemia can be primary (breed-related, especially in Miniature Schnauzers) or secondary to endocrine disorders such as diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, or pancreatitis.
Treatment Management includes a strict low-fat prescription diet containing ≤10% fat on a dry matter basis, supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids (EPA/DHA) at 40 mg/kg/day PO to reduce triglycerides and inflammation, and gemfibrozil at 5–10 mg/kg PO every 12 hours (typically 200–600 mg/day in dogs >10 kg; note this is off-label use). Underlying diseases such as diabetes mellitus or hypothyroidism should be diagnosed and treated appropriately. Recheck fasting serum triglyceride levels after 4 weeks to monitor response.

Pancreatitis (Acute or Chronic)Most prominent signs include sudden vomiting, anorexia, cranial abdominal pain (often adopting the prayer position), fever, dehydration, and lethargy. Severe cases may progress to systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) or disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Common triggers include high-fat meals, obesity, and endocrine disorders such as diabetes mellitus.
Treatment Aggressive intravenous fluid therapy (e.g., Lactated Ringer's solution) to correct dehydration and maintain perfusion. Antiemetics such as maropitant at 1 mg/kg SC or IV once daily to control vomiting. Analgesia with buprenorphine (0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV/IM/SC every 6-8 hours) or methadone (0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV/IM every 4-6 hours). Withhold food during active vomiting; initiate a low-fat, easily digestible diet upon refeeding. Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin-sulbactam 20-30 mg/kg IV every 8-12 hours) are reserved for suspected or confirmed secondary bacterial infections or sepsis. Monitor electrolytes, blood glucose, and hydration status closely.

Protein-Losing Nephropathy (PLN) Prominent signs include peripheral edema, ascites, weight loss despite normal appetite, systemic hypertension, hypoalbuminemia, and persistent proteinuria. PLN is often secondary to glomerular diseases such as immune complex glomerulonephritis, amyloidosis, or familial glomerulopathies in dogs and cats.
Treatment ACE inhibitors such as enalapril at 0.5 mg/kg PO once or twice daily or benazepril at 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO once or twice daily are first-line to reduce proteinuria and control hypertension. Dietary management includes protein and phosphorus restriction to reduce kidney workload. Omega-3 fatty acids (EPA/DHA) at 80 mg/kg/day PO help modulate inflammation. Antithrombotic therapy is recommended to prevent thromboembolism: aspirin at 0.5–1 mg/kg PO once daily or clopidogrel at 1–2 mg/kg PO once daily. Regular monitoring of urine protein-to-creatinine ratio (UPC), serum albumin, and blood pressure is essential monthly. Address underlying infectious or immune-mediated causes if identified with appropriate immunosuppressive or antimicrobial therapies.

Diabetes Mellitus Marked polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, weight loss despite good appetite. Dogs may develop cataracts; cats may show plantigrade stance due to neuropathy. Often affects middle-aged to senior pets, especially obese or sedentary animals.
Treatment Twice-daily insulin injections: NPH (dogs: 0.25–0.5 U/kg BID) or glargine (cats: 1–3 U BID). Feed a consistent prescription low-carb, high-protein diet. Perform serial blood glucose curves and/or fructosamine monitoring every 2–4 weeks until stable. Promptly manage urinary tract infections and dental disease, which are common comorbidities.

Addison’s Disease (Hypoadrenocorticism) Acute collapse, lethargy, vomiting, diarrhea, bradycardia, and classic electrolyte derangement (hyponatremia and hyperkalemia). Addisonian crisis is life-threatening and requires emergency care.
Treatment Initial crisis: IV fluids (0.9% NaCl), dexamethasone sodium phosphate (0.1–0.25 mg/kg IV), and calcium gluconate if needed for hyperkalemia. Maintenance: DOCP (Desoxycorticosterone pivalate) 2.2 mg/kg IM or SC every 28–30 days plus oral prednisolone (0.1–0.5 mg/kg/day, tapered). Monitor electrolytes every 2–4 weeks during stabilization, then quarterly.

Pyometra (Uterine Infection) Purulent vulvar discharge, lethargy, vomiting, polyuria/polydipsia, abdominal distension, fever, and sometimes collapse. Occurs in intact females 1–8 weeks post-estrus due to hormonal and bacterial changes (often Escherichia coli).
Treatment Emergency ovariohysterectomy is the treatment of choice. Stabilize with IV fluids (lactated Ringer’s or 0.9% NaCl), broad-spectrum IV antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin-sulbactam 22–30 mg/kg IV BID or enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IV SID), and analgesia. In breeding animals, medical management may involve prostaglandin F2α (use with caution), but carries higher risk of recurrence and mortality.

Lymphoma Enlarged peripheral lymph nodes, weight loss, lethargy, decreased appetite, vomiting or diarrhea (GI form), and sometimes mediastinal masses with respiratory signs (cats). Common neoplasia in both species.
Treatment CHOP-based chemotherapy protocol (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisolone). Example dosing: vincristine 0.5–0.75 mg/m² IV, doxorubicin 30 mg/m² IV, prednisolone 2 mg/kg/day PO (tapered). Palliative: prednisolone alone prolongs life ~1–3 months. Anti-nausea and nutritional support are essential during treatment.

Panosteitis (Growing Pains) Sudden onset of shifting leg lameness, pain on deep palpation of long bones (especially humerus), intermittent symptoms. Affects large-breed dogs aged 5–18 months.
Treatment Self-limiting with supportive care. NSAIDs (e.g., carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID), short periods of rest, and balanced, age-appropriate nutrition. Avoid calcium supplementation. Most dogs recover fully within a few months.

Toxoplasmosis Lethargy, fever, anorexia, dyspnea, ocular inflammation (uveitis, chorioretinitis), and neurologic signs (ataxia, seizures). More common and severe in kittens and immunosuppressed cats. Caused by Toxoplasma gondii, a zoonotic protozoan.
Treatment Clindamycin 10–12 mg/kg PO BID for 2–4 weeks. In severe cases, continue up to 6 weeks. Add topical anti-inflammatories (e.g., prednisolone acetate for uveitis) and systemic corticosteroids only if ocular or neurologic inflammation is severe and concurrent antibiotics are given. Ensure patient is FIV/FeLV negative. Educate owners on zoonotic risk, especially immunocompromised individuals and pregnant women.

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever in dogs. High fever, petechial or ecchymotic hemorrhages, joint pain, neurologic abnormalities (seizures, ataxia), and thrombocytopenia. Caused by Rickettsia rickettsii, transmitted by ticks (e.g., Dermacentor variabilis).
Treatment Doxycycline 5–10 mg/kg PO or IV BID for 10–21 days (start as soon as disease is suspected). Supportive care includes IV fluids, analgesia, and anti-inflammatories as needed. Consider anticonvulsants (e.g., levetiracetam) if neurologic signs are present. Emphasize strict tick prevention (e.g., isoxazoline-class products) for long-term control and prevention.

Trypanosomiasis in Dogs and Cats Intermittent fever, progressive weight loss, anemia, lymphadenopathy, lethargy, and in advanced cases, neurologic signs such as ataxia, seizures, and behavioral changes. In dogs, cardiac involvement (arrhythmias, myocarditis) and ocular lesions (e.g., uveitis) are frequent. Transmitted by biting flies such as Glossina spp. (tsetse) and Triatoma spp. (reduviid bugs).
Treatment Diminazene aceturate at 3.5–7 mg/kg IM once, or divided over 2–3 days. Repeat after 14 days if parasitemia persists. In endemic regions, isometamidium chloride (0.5–1 mg/kg IM) may provide prophylactic effect. Supportive care: IV fluids, B-complex vitamins, hematinics, corticosteroids for severe inflammation, and broad-spectrum antibiotics for secondary infections. Monitor with blood smears or PCR; apply vector control through insect repellents and housing management.

Zoonotic Hookworm Infection (Ancylostomiasis) Pale mucous membranes, iron-deficiency anemia, dark tarry stools (melena), diarrhea, poor growth, and rough coat. Severe cases may develop hypoproteinemia and peripheral edema. Zoonotic risk includes cutaneous larva migrans in humans due to skin penetration by larvae.
Treatment Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 3 consecutive days or pyrantel pamoate 5–10 mg/kg PO once, repeat in 2–3 weeks. Iron supplements and high-protein nutrition for anemic or debilitated animals. Deworming protocol for all in-contact animals. Emphasize hygiene, regular fecal exams, and public education to reduce zoonotic exposure and environmental contamination.

Feline EhrlichiosisFever, weight loss, hyperesthesia, joint pain, pale mucous membranes, dyspnea, ocular discharge, anorexia, and diarrhea are prominent clinical signs. Feline ehrlichiosis is caused by intracellular rickettsial organisms such as Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Neorickettsia risticii. Though less common in cats than dogs, infected cats can present with acute or chronic systemic signs due to immune-mediated and inflammatory responses. Transmission typically occurs through tick vectors, especially Rhipicephalus sanguineus.
TreatmentDoxycycline is the treatment of choice: 10 mg/kg PO SID for 28 days. For cats unable to tolerate doxycycline, tetracycline may be considered at 22 mg/kg PO TID for 21 days, although doxycycline remains more effective and better tolerated. Supportive therapy may include fluid therapy, nutritional support, and antipyretics (e.g., meloxicam 0.05 mg/kg PO SID with caution). Serial CBC and platelet monitoring are recommended during treatment to track resolution of anemia and thrombocytopenia. Consider testing for co-infections such as hemoplasmas or FeLV/FIV in persistent or non-responsive cases.

Canine EhrlichiosisEpistaxis (nose bleeding), fever, lethargy, weight loss, pale mucous membranes, anterior uveitis, retinal hemorrhages, acute blindness, seizures, ataxia, intention tremors, hyperesthesia, lameness, joint swelling, and audible heart sounds are among the most prominent signs. Canine ehrlichiosis is a tick-borne rickettsial disease primarily caused by Ehrlichia canis, but can also involve Anaplasma and Neorickettsia species. It progresses through acute, subclinical, and chronic phases, with multisystemic signs involving hematologic, neurologic, and ocular manifestations.
TreatmentDoxycycline 10 mg/kg PO or IV once daily for 28-42 days is the treatment of choice. Alternatively, minocycline 10 mg/kg PO twice daily for 28 days may be used if doxycycline is not tolerated. Tetracycline (less commonly used) is dosed at 22 mg/kg PO three times daily for 28 days. In cases of co-infection with Babesia or suspected resistant strains, imidocarb dipropionate 5 mg/kg IM or SC once, repeat in 14 days; atropine (0.02–0.04 mg/kg SC) should be administered if cholinergic signs appear. Supportive care may include IV fluids, blood transfusions (for anemia or thrombocytopenia), and anticonvulsants for neurologic signs. Tick control and monitoring for response to therapy via platelet counts and PCR are essential.

Hypothyroidism (Dogs) Common signs include lethargy, mental dullness, symmetrical alopecia, dry or scaling skin, weight gain without polyphagia, cold intolerance, bradycardia, and infertility. Often seen in middle-aged to older dogs.
Treatment Levothyroxine sodium(T4 tablet) 0.02 mg/kg PO BID (or 0.5 mg/m² BID), adjusted based on clinical response and T4 levels. Recheck total T4 and TSH 4–6 hours post-pill after 4 weeks of therapy. Gradual improvement in skin and metabolic signs expected over weeks. Address secondary skin infections or seborrhea as needed.

Hyperparathyroidism in Cats Most notable signs include polyuria, polydipsia, muscle weakness, decreased appetite, lethargy, vomiting, and calcium oxalate urolithiasis (bladder stones) due to persistent hypercalcemia.
Treatment Primary: Surgical excision of the parathyroid tumor is curative. Preoperative management includes IV fluids (0.9% NaCl), furosemide, and bisphosphonates (e.g., pamidronate 1–2 mg/kg IV over 2 hours). Secondary (nutritional or renal): Phosphate binders (aluminum hydroxide 30–100 mg/kg/day), dietary phosphorus restriction, and calcitriol 0.01–0.03 µg/kg/day PO. Monitor serum calcium and phosphorus closely postoperatively for hypocalcemia.

Hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing’s Disease - Dogs)Prominent signs include persistent PU/PD, abdominal distension ("pot-belly"), polyphagia, thin skin, bilateral alopecia, muscle wasting, panting, and calcinosis cutis.
Treatment Medical: Trilostane at 2–10 mg/kg PO once daily or divided BID, titrated based on clinical response and cortisol monitoring. Mitotane: Induction at 50 mg/kg/day PO divided BID for 5–7 days, then maintenance at 25–50 mg/kg/week divided doses. Monitor with ACTH stimulation tests 10–14 days post-initiation and every 1–3 months thereafter.
Surgical: Adrenalectomy indicated for adrenal-dependent cases with preoperative stabilization. Perioperative corticosteroid support often required.

Feline Panleukopenia Most notable signs are high fever, profuse vomiting, bloody diarrhea, dehydration, profound leukopenia, and sudden death in young kittens. Extremely contagious among unvaccinated cats.
Treatment Aggressive supportive therapy: IV crystalloids for rehydration, antiemetics (e.g., maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID), broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin 22 mg/kg IV TID) to prevent secondary bacterial infections. Early enteral nutrition improves recovery. Isolate infected cats and ensure strict hygiene. Vaccination with MLV vaccine starting at 6–8 weeks of age for prevention.

Feline Dermatophytosis (Ringworm) Most notable signs include circular areas of alopecia with scaling, crusting, follicular plugging, and variable pruritus. Fluoresces under Wood’s lamp in some cases. Highly contagious and zoonotic.
Treatment Topical therapy: miconazole-chlorhexidine shampoo twice weekly or lime sulfur 2% dips every 5–7 days. Systemic antifungals: itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID for 21–28 days or terbinafine 30–40 mg/kg PO SID for 14–21 days. Treat all in-contact animals and perform environmental decontamination using bleach (1:10 dilution) weekly.

Helminthiasis (Roundworms, Hookworms) Key signs include chronic diarrhea, pot-bellied appearance (especially in puppies/kittens), poor weight gain or weight loss, dull coat, vomiting (with visible worms), and anemia (notably with hookworms). Common in overcrowded or unsanitary tropical environments.
Treatment Pyrantel pamoate 5–10 mg/kg PO once, repeat in 2–3 weeks. Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO once daily for 3 consecutive days. Milbemycin oxime 0.5 mg/kg PO monthly for prevention. Deworm at 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks of age in puppies/kittens, then monthly. Emphasize fecal hygiene and flea control to prevent reinfection.

Feline Mycobacteriosis Prominent signs include firm to ulcerated subcutaneous nodules, chronic draining wounds, regional lymphadenopathy, and respiratory signs (in pulmonary forms). Seen in cats exposed to soil, rodents, or infected wildlife in warm, humid climates.
Treatment Prolonged combination antimicrobial therapy: rifampin 10–15 mg/kg PO SID, clarithromycin 10–15 mg/kg PO BID, and enrofloxacin 5–10 mg/kg PO SID for 4–6+ months. Surgical excision of accessible lesions is recommended. Culture and sensitivity testing essential. Zoonotic risk — advise strict hygiene and handling precautions.

Feline Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Key symptoms include sneezing, bilateral nasal and ocular discharge (serous to mucopurulent), conjunctivitis, fever, oral ulcers (especially with calicivirus), and decreased appetite. Common in multi-cat or shelter environments.
Treatment Supportive care: subcutaneous or IV fluids, palatable food or assisted feeding, and cleaning discharges. Antimicrobials: doxycycline 5–10 mg/kg PO SID–BID for 7–10 days for secondary bacterial infection. Antivirals: famciclovir 40–90 mg/kg PO BID for Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 . Nebulization or steam therapy may improve airway clearance. Isolate affected cats to reduce transmission.

Feline Chlamydiosis Prominent signs include conjunctivitis with serous to mucopurulent ocular discharge, blepharospasm, chemosis, and occasional sneezing. Mainly affects young cats or those in catteries.
Treatment Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID for 21–28 days or until 2 weeks after resolution of signs. Treat all in-contact cats. Supportive care: saline eye irrigation, warm compresses, and isolate infected cats to prevent spread.

Feline Toxoplasmosis Most prominent symptoms include fever, lethargy, anorexia, dyspnea, and neurologic signs (e.g., ataxia, tremors). May also cause ocular inflammation and hepatic or GI signs.
Treatment Clindamycin hydrochloride 10–12 mg/kg PO BID for 2–4 weeks. Monitor for improvement within 3–5 days. Supportive care includes fluids, nutritional support, and oxygen if respiratory signs are present. Screen immunocompromised cats and limit raw meat intake.

Feline Mycoplasmosis Most prominent signs include intermittent fever, lethargy, pale mucous membranes, icterus, and hemolytic anemia due to immune-mediated erythrocyte destruction. Often transmitted by fleas or bites in outdoor cats.
Treatment Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID for 21–28 days. In severe cases with marked hemolysis, prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO may be added to suppress immune-mediated destruction. Supportive therapy includes IV fluids and B-vitamin supplementation. Flea control is essential to prevent recurrence.

Feline Chronic Kidney Disease Common signs include progressive weight loss, polyuria and polydipsia (PU/PD), vomiting, halitosis (uremic odor), oral ulcers, poor coat quality, and anemia.
Treatment Renal therapeutic diets (low phosphorus, moderate protein), phosphate binders (e.g., aluminum hydroxide 30–100 mg/kg/day PO), subcutaneous fluids 50–150 mL/day depending on hydration, antihypertensives (e.g., amlodipine 0.625–1.25 mg/cat PO SID), and erythropoiesis-stimulating agents in non-regenerative anemia. Monitor creatinine, phosphorus, and blood pressure routinely.

Feline Hepatic Lipidosis Most prominent signs include prolonged anorexia (>3 days), marked jaundice, vomiting, lethargy, weight loss, and hepatomegaly. Common in obese cats following a sudden loss of appetite.
Treatment Aggressive nutritional support is critical: placement of an esophagostomy or PEG tube and feeding a high-protein, calorie-dense diet (60–70 kcal/kg/day). IV fluids to correct dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Antiemetics (e.g., maropitant 1 mg/kg/day SC or PO), liver support with SAMe (18–20 mg/kg/day), and vitamin K1 if coagulopathy suspected. Monitor liver enzymes, bilirubin, and electrolytes throughout recovery.

Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease (FLUTD)Key signs include dysuria (straining), pollakiuria (frequent small urinations), hematuria (blood in urine), urinating outside the litter box, and vocalization due to pain. In male cats, urethral obstruction is a life-threatening emergency.
Treatment Acute management includes relieving obstruction via urinary catheterization under sedation or anesthesia. Administer analgesics such as buprenorphine (0.01–0.02 mg/kg SC or transmucosally BID–TID). Antibiotics only if UTI is confirmed by culture. Long-term: Prescription urinary diets (e.g., c/d Multicare), increase water intake (e.g., water fountains, wet food), and reduce environmental stress (multimodal environmental enrichment).

Feline Dental Disease Common signs include halitosis (bad breath), drooling, difficulty chewing, red or bleeding gingiva, and tooth loss. May progress to stomatitis or systemic effects (e.g., renal or cardiac disease).
Treatment Full-mouth dental examination under anesthesia. Ultrasonic scaling and polishing, followed by extractions if periodontal pockets >5 mm or resorptive lesions are present. Administer analgesics (e.g., meloxicam 0.05 mg/kg PO SID) and antibiotics if infection is present. Maintain with home care: chlorhexidine oral rinses and daily tooth brushing.

Feline Obesity Notable signs include increased body condition score (BCS >6/9), inability to groom, exercise intolerance, and higher risk of diabetes mellitus, arthritis, and hepatic lipidosis.
Treatment Initiate a weight loss plan with a prescription weight management diet (e.g., Metabolic or Satiety Support). Feed based on ideal body weight with measured portions (typically 60–70 kcal/kg/day). Encourage physical activity (e.g., laser play, food puzzles). Monitor weight monthly and aim for 0.5–1% weight loss per week. Avoid rapid weight loss to prevent hepatic lipidosis.

Feline Hypertension Prominent signs include acute onset of blindness due to retinal detachment, dilated pupils, disorientation, seizures, and epistaxis (nose bleeding). Often secondary to chronic kidney disease or hyperthyroidism.
Treatment Amlodipine besylate 0.625–1.25 mg/cat PO once daily is the first-line treatment. Monitor systolic blood pressure every 1–2 weeks initially. Treat underlying conditions such as chronic kidney disease or hyperthyroidism concurrently. Adjust antihypertensive dose based on clinical response and BP readings.

Feline Hyperesthesia Syndrome Most notable signs include rippling or twitching skin on the back, sudden episodes of self-directed aggression or vocalization, excessive grooming (especially tail or flank), and frantic running. Often triggered by stress or neurological disorders.
Treatment Minimize environmental stress, use predictable routines, and provide mental enrichment. Pharmacologic therapy includes gabapentin 5–10 mg/kg PO BID, fluoxetine 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID, or amitriptyline 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID in severe cases. Monitor for response and adjust doses accordingly. Behavioral consultation may be beneficial.

Feline Vestibular Disease Key symptoms include sudden head tilt, loss of balance, ataxia, circling, nystagmus (rapid involuntary eye movements), and possible nausea or vomiting. Often idiopathic but can be secondary to otitis media/interna, neoplasia, or toxins.
Treatment Supportive care includes maropitant 1 mg/kg PO or SC SID for motion sickness and fluid therapy if dehydrated. Address any underlying cause such as ear infections with appropriate antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID for 10–14 days). Most idiopathic cases resolve within 7–10 days.

Feline Heartworm Disease Persistent coughing, labored breathing, intermittent vomiting, and sudden collapse in severe cases.
Treatment There is no approved adulticidal treatment in cats. Provide supportive care including corticosteroids (e.g., prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg orally every 24 hours) to reduce inflammation. Bronchodilators may be prescribed, and monthly heartworm preventives such as selamectin or ivermectin should be continued to prevent new infections.

Feline Anemia Pale mucous membranes, lethargy, increased heart rate, rapid breathing, and poor appetite.
Treatment Treat the underlying cause (e.g., parasites, FeLV, chronic disease). Severe cases may require blood transfusions. Administer iron supplements (e.g., ferrous sulfate 10–20 mg/kg/day orally) and B-complex vitamins. Erythropoietin therapy may be considered in non-regenerative anemia under veterinary supervision.

Feline Epilepsy Recurrent seizures, sudden collapse, muscle twitching, and disorientation post-seizure.
Treatment Long-term control with anticonvulsants such as phenobarbital (2–3 mg/kg orally every 12 hours) or levetiracetam (20 mg/kg orally every 8 hours). Monitor liver enzymes regularly if using phenobarbital. Maintain consistent dosing schedule and avoid abrupt discontinuation.

Canine Brucellosis Infertility, abortion in females, scrotal swelling in males, back pain, and swollen lymph nodes.
Treatment Long-term antibiotics such as doxycycline (5–10 mg/kg orally twice daily for 4–6 weeks) often combined with streptomycin (20 mg/kg IM daily for 7–14 days, where available). Spaying/neutering is essential to reduce transmission. Infected dogs should be isolated, and regular PCR or culture testing is recommended to monitor for relapse.

Canine Hepatitis (Infectious Canine Hepatitis) High fever, abdominal pain, vomiting, jaundice, corneal edema ("blue eye"), and spontaneous bleeding (petechiae, epistaxis).
Treatment Aggressive supportive care with IV fluids, antiemetics, and liver support (e.g., SAMe or silymarin). Corticosteroids (e.g., dexamethasone 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV) may be used to reduce ocular inflammation. Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin 22 mg/kg IV q8h) are given to prevent secondary bacterial infections. Isolate affected animals and ensure up-to-date vaccination in others.

Canine Pyometra Purulent vaginal discharge (in open pyometra), lethargy, vomiting, fever, increased thirst, and abdominal distension.
Treatment Emergency ovariohysterectomy is the treatment of choice. Stabilize with IV fluids (e.g., lactated Ringer’s solution 10–20 mL/kg/hr), broad-spectrum antibiotics such as ampicillin-sulbactam (22 mg/kg IV q8h), and monitor electrolytes. Medical management with prostaglandins (e.g., PGF2α) is only considered in select breeding cases.

Canine Heart Disease (e.g., Dilated Cardiomyopathy) Exercise intolerance, coughing, labored breathing, abdominal swelling (ascites), and fainting episodes (syncope).
Treatment Pimobendan (0.25–0.3 mg/kg orally twice daily), ACE inhibitors such as enalapril (0.5 mg/kg orally twice daily), furosemide (2–4 mg/kg orally or IV as needed), and taurine supplementation in breeds predisposed to deficiency. Feed a sodium-restricted, heart-healthy diet and monitor with echocardiography.

Canine Kennel Cough (Infectious Tracheobronchitis) Loud, dry, honking cough, nasal discharge, retching or gagging, and mild fever in some cases.
Treatment Rest in a low-stress environment. For severe cases, prescribe doxycycline (5–10 mg/kg orally twice daily for 7–10 days). Use antitussives like hydrocodone (0.25 mg/kg orally every 6–12 hours) if no pneumonia is present. Vaccinate annually against Bordetella bronchiseptica, parainfluenza, and canine adenovirus-2 for prevention.

Canine Gastric Dilatation-Volvulus(GDV) (Life-threatening syndrome that occurs in large to giant breed dogs characterized by over-distension of stomach with gas, fluid, or ingesta) . Sudden abdominal distension,. non-productive retching, hypersalivation, restlessness, signs of shock (tachycardia, weak pulses, pale mucous membranes), and abdominal pain. In severe cases, collapse and death can occur rapidly without intervention.
TreatmentImmediate decompression via orogastric tube or trocarization is critical. Initiate aggressive IV fluid therapy (shock doses: 90 mL/kg crystalloids for dogs, titrated to effect), oxygen supplementation, and gastric decompression using an orogastric tube or trocarization. Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin-sulbactam 22-30 mg/kg IV q8h) are indicated to prevent sepsis. Rapid surgical intervention (gastropexy) is required to correct volvulus and prevent recurrence. Monitor for arrhythmias postoperatively and treat with lidocaine (50-75 µg/kg IV bolus followed by CRI at 25-75 µg/kg/min) if ventricular arrhythmias occur. Early intervention significantly improves prognosis; postoperative intensive care is essential.

Cataplexy in Dogs Sudden loss of muscle tone during periods of excitement (e.g., play or food), while the dog remains conscious. Episodes may mimic collapse or fainting.
Treatment Clomipramine 1–3 mg/kg orally every 12–24 hours or imipramine 1–2 mg/kg orally twice daily. Behavior modification includes minimizing overexcitement and establishing a calm, structured routine. Monitor for adverse effects from tricyclic antidepressants.

Narcolepsy Sudden onset of sleep, often triggered by excitement or feeding, accompanied by rapid muscle relaxation and collapse. Episodes are brief and the animal quickly recovers.
Treatment Imipramine (1–2 mg/kg orally twice daily) or modafinil (3–5 mg/kg orally once daily) may reduce episode frequency. Environmental management to avoid triggers is key to safety.

Myasthenia Gravis Progressive muscle weakness, especially after exercise, megaesophagus with regurgitation, and possible collapse from fatigue.
Treatment Pyridostigmine bromide (1–3 mg/kg orally every 8–12 hours), monitor response closely. Immunosuppressive therapy with corticosteroids may be indicated in acquired cases. Feed upright in small meals to reduce risk of aspiration from megaesophagus.

Episodic Falling Syndrome (CKCS) Exercise- or excitement-induced muscle stiffness and collapse, often without loss of consciousness; specific to Cavalier King Charles Spaniels.
Treatment Clonazepam (0.5–1 mg/kg PO every 8–12 hrs) or acetazolamide (5–10 mg/kg PO every 8 hrs) may help manage symptoms. Minimize stress and excitement triggers. Genetic counseling recommended for breeding dogs.

Exercise-Induced Collapse (EIC) Collapse during or after intense activity; signs include hindlimb weakness, stumbling, and inability to stand, typically in young Labrador Retrievers.
Treatment No curative treatment. Strictly limit intense physical activity, especially in warm weather. Cooling the dog immediately and resting helps recovery. Genetic testing (DNM1 mutation) should guide breeding decisions.

Paroxysmal Dyskinesia Sudden onset of involuntary movements, tremors, muscle rigidity, or dystonia without altered consciousness; episodes can last several minutes to hours.
Treatment Phenobarbital (2–4 mg/kg PO twice daily), clonazepam (0.5–1 mg/kg PO every 8–12 hrs), or dietary management such as gluten-free or hypoallergenic diets. Monitor triggers and episode frequency to adjust treatment.

Cervical Vertebral Instability (Wobbler Syndrome) Progressive limb weakness, ataxia, and wide-based, uncoordinated gait; more common in Dobermans and Great Danes.
Treatment Surgical decompression or vertebral stabilization is often necessary. Medical management includes prednisone (0.5–1 mg/kg PO daily), gabapentin for nerve pain, and strict activity restriction. Physical therapy may assist recovery.

Idiopathic Head Tremors Involuntary, repetitive horizontal ("no") or vertical ("yes") head bobbing; commonly seen in Bulldogs, Boxers, and Dobermans; occurs when the dog is at rest and alert.
Treatment Typically self-limiting and benign. No specific treatment required. Rule out seizures or metabolic/toxic causes with neurologic evaluation. Distracting the dog with food or commands may stop an episode.

Tetanus Progressive muscle stiffness, rigid limbs, risus sardonicus (grimace), erect ears, difficulty swallowing, and hypersensitivity to stimuli due to Clostridium tetani neurotoxin.
Treatment Administer tetanus antitoxin (1500–3000 IU IV or SC), high-dose metronidazole (15 mg/kg PO or IV BID), muscle relaxants (e.g., diazepam 0.5–1 mg/kg IV PRN), and intensive supportive care in a quiet environment.

Peripheral Neuropathy Symmetric limb weakness, decreased or absent reflexes, muscle atrophy, and sensory deficits. Often related to diabetes, hypothyroidism, or toxin exposure.
Treatment Identify and treat underlying cause (e.g., control diabetes with insulin). Supplement with B-complex vitamins (e.g., methylcobalamin 250 mcg PO BID). Supportive care includes physiotherapy and assisted mobility devices.

Botulism Acute, progressive flaccid paralysis beginning in hind limbs, cranial nerve dysfunction (drooling, weak jaw tone), and respiratory distress caused by Clostridium botulinum toxin ingestion.
Treatment Supportive care only, as antitoxin is rarely effective in small animals. Maintain hydration, turn the patient frequently, and provide mechanical ventilation if respiratory paralysis develops. Recovery can take weeks.

ConjunctivitisRedness of the conjunctiva, ocular discharge (serous, mucoid, or purulent), squinting, blinking, and ocular discomfort. In cats, often associated with infections like Chlamydia felis or Feline Herpesvirus.
TreatmentIdentify and treat underlying cause. Empirical topical antibiotics such as oxytetracycline-polymyxin B ointment (apply q8–12h) or tobramycin drops (1–2 drops OU q8h) for bacterial causes. In feline herpesvirus cases, topical antivirals like cidofovir 1% (1 drop OU q12h) may be used. Systemic doxycycline (5–10 mg/kg PO q12–24h) is effective for Chlamydia felis. Maintain ocular hygiene and monitor for chronic or recurrent signs, especially in cats with viral etiologies.

EuthanasiaA medically supervised procedure to humanely end the life of a suffering animal, often due to terminal illness, unmanageable pain, progressive neurological disease, or poor quality of life. Euthanasia is advised in rabies cases and performed with the goal of minimizing pain, anxiety, and distress for both the pet and the owner.
TreatmentPre-euthanasia sedation is recommended to reduce stress: administer dexmedetomidine (5–10 µg/kg IM), with or without butorphanol (0.2–0.4 mg/kg IM). Once the animal is calm, intravenous pentobarbital sodium (e.g. Euthasol, Fatal-Plus) is given at 100–150 mg/kg IV for rapid, painless euthanasia. In small or fractious animals, intraperitoneal injection is acceptable but slower. After injection, unconsciousness occurs within seconds, followed by respiratory and cardiac arrest. Confirm death via auscultation and absence of corneal reflex. Handle remains respectfully and discuss options with the owner in advance.

Euthanasia Alternative ProtocolThis alternative protocol is suitable when barbiturates are unavailable or restricted.
Treatment Step 1: Administer deep anesthesia for unconsciousness using a combination such as ketamine (10–15 mg/kg IM) with midazolam (0.2–0.5 mg/kg IM) or medetomidine (10–20 µg/kg IM). Allow 5–10 minutes for effect.
Step 2: Confirm deep anesthesia (no response to toe pinch, no corneal reflex), then administer a lethal dose of potassium chloride (KCl) 1–2 mmol/kg IV slowly. Rapid infusion can induce cardiac arrest but is only humane under full anesthesiapotassium chloride causes cessation of cardiac function by inducing hyperkalemia. Note: potassium chloride solution should be prepared as 1–2 mEq/mL, diluted in sterile saline. Injection may cause muscle twitching or gasping—owners should not be present unless pre-sedated with barbiturates. Use this protocol only where pentobarbital is not available and under strict veterinary supervision.

Chiari-like Malformation (CM) Severe pain at the neck or shoulders, phantom scratching (air scratching near neck without contact), yelping when touched, and limb weakness; often seen in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels and other toy breeds.
TreatmentGabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO every 8–12 hours, omeprazole 0.7 mg/kg PO once daily to reduce cerebrospinal fluid production, and prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO daily for inflammation. Surgical foramen magnum decompression may be required in advanced cases.

Degenerative Myelopathy Slowly progressive hindlimb ataxia, proprioceptive deficits, knuckling, and eventual paraplegia; common in German Shepherds and older large breeds.
Treatment No effective medical cure. Intensive physical therapy and hydrotherapy can extend functional mobility. Antioxidants such as vitamin E and aminocaproic acid (500–1,000 mg PO BID for large dogs) may help in some cases. Use harness support for ambulation.

Polyradiculoneuritis (Coonhound Paralysis)Acute flaccid paralysis beginning in hind limbs, progressing to all limbs, often post-raccoon exposure or idiopathic; sensation and mental status remain intact.
Treatment Supportive nursing care, including turning every 4 hours, bladder management, and assisted feeding. Physical therapy critical for recovery. Recovery typically begins in 2–3 weeks, with full resolution in 8–12 weeks. No specific pharmacologic therapy has proven efficacy.

Spinal Cord TraumaSudden onset of hindlimb or all-limb paralysis or paresis, absence of deep pain perception, and urinary/fecal incontinence depending on lesion site.
Treatment Emergency surgical decompression/stabilization if indicated. Methylprednisolone sodium succinate 30 mg/kg IV bolus, then 15 mg/kg at 2 and 6 hours, followed by 2.5 mg/kg every 6 hours for 48 hours (within first 8 hours only). Strict cage rest for 4–6 weeks, bladder expression, and structured physiotherapy to prevent disuse atrophy.

HyperthyroidismWeight loss despite increased appetite, hyperactivity, vomiting, tachycardia, and poor coat quality in older cats.
Treatment Methimazole 2.5 mg PO BID or transdermally, adjust per T4 levels. Radioactive iodine-131 (preferred curative treatment). Alternatively, surgical thyroidectomy if patient is stable. Monitor renal function post-treatment as GFR decreases with normalized thyroid levels.

Hepatic LipidosisProlonged anorexia (>3–5 days), jaundice, ptyalism, lethargy, vomiting, and weight loss in overweight or stressed cats.
TreatmentNutritional support via esophagostomy or PEG feeding tube: 60–70 kcal/kg/day with complete diet (e.g., Hills a/d or Clinicare). Monitor electrolytes. Supplement L-carnitine (250 mg/day), taurine (250–500 mg/day), thiamine, and vitamin K1. IV fluids and antiemetics (maropitant 1 mg/kg/day SC or PO).

Portosystemic Shunt (PSS)Failure to thrive, hepatic encephalopathy (ataxia, circling, seizures), hypersalivation, and intermittent GI signs in young animals.
Treatment Medical: Lactulose (0.5-1 mL/kg PO TID), low-protein diet (Hill’s l/d or home-cooked hepatic diet), and metronidazole 10-15 mg/kg PO BID or ampicillin. Surgical: Ameroid constrictor placement or ligation for congenital shunts, with careful perioperative monitoring.

Megacolon (Chronic Colonic Dilatation) Prominent symptoms include persistent constipation, tenesmus, abdominal distension, anorexia, lethargy, and reduced or absent defecation. Megacolon results from chronic colonic distension and irreversible loss of muscular tone, often secondary to chronic obstruction or idiopathic dysfunction. It is more commonly seen in older cats.
Treatment Medical management may be attempted in early stages:
Lactulose: 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID–TID (osmotic laxative)
Docusate sodium: 50–100 mg PO BID or 10 mL of 5% solution mixed with 100 mL warm water per rectum
Cisapride: 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO TID (prokinetic agent, particularly effective in cats)
Low-residue/high-fiber diets and adequate hydration are crucial.
Loperamide (Decotil): Use with caution; generally avoided in megacolon due to risk of worsening motility issues.
Bisacodyl (Dalax): 0.12 mg/kg PO as needed (short-term use only)
Surgical intervention (subtotal colectomy) is the definitive treatment in severe or nonresponsive cases.

LymphangiectasiaChronic small bowel diarrhea, ascites, peripheral edema, weight loss, and severe hypoproteinemia (especially hypoalbuminemia); often seen in Yorkies and other small breeds.
Treatment Ultra-low-fat diet (≤10% fat on DM basis, e.g., Royal Canin Gastrointestinal Low Fat or home-cooked low-fat novel protein diet). Prednisone at 1-2 mg/kg/day PO initially; taper based on response. Supplement vitamin B12 if deficient (e.g., cyanocobalamin 250-500 µg SC weekly for 6 weeks), and consider adding immunosuppressants (e.g., azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO EOD) if not responsive to steroids alone.

Taurine Deficiency Cardiomyopathy Dilated cardiomyopathy in cats characterized by exercise intolerance, lethargy, dyspnea, pleural effusion, and gallop rhythm or arrhythmia; especially in diets low in animal protein or non-AAFCO-compliant foods.
TreatmentTaurine supplementation at 250-500 mg PO BID for at least 3 months. Initiate standard CHF treatment: furosemide 1–2 mg/kg PO BID, pimobendan 0.1-0.3 mg/kg PO BID (off-label in cats), and enalapril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID–BID if tolerated. Monitor taurine levels and cardiac function via echocardiography every 4–6 weeks.

GlomerulonephritisPersistent proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, weight loss, ascites, systemic hypertension, and possible azotemia; often secondary to infectious, inflammatory, or neoplastic disease.
TreatmentAngiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (e.g., enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO SID or benazepril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID), renal therapeutic diet (low-protein, low-phosphorus), omega-3 fatty acids at 40–70 mg/kg/day, and antihypertensives if BP >160 mmHg (e.g., amlodipine 0.625–1.25 mg/cat PO SID; dogs: 0.1–0.3 mg/kg PO SID). Monitor UPC ratio, serum albumin, and blood pressure regularly.

AmyloidosisWeight loss, lethargy, persistent proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, hepatomegaly, and signs of renal or hepatic failure depending on organ involvement (commonly kidneys in Shar-Peis, liver in Abyssinian cats).
Treatment Supportive care with a renal or hepatic therapeutic diet; manage proteinuria with ACE inhibitors (e.g., enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO SID); colchicine (0.03–0.05 mg/kg PO SID) may slow amyloid deposition in familial Shar-Pei fever. Monitor blood pressure and renal parameters regularly.

Protein-Losing Enteropathy(PLE) Severe chronic diarrhea, weight loss, peripheral edema, ascites, and hypoalbuminemia due to intestinal lymphangiectasia or IBD.
Treatment Ultra-low-fat, hypoallergenic diet (e.g., home-cooked or hydrolyzed protein); corticosteroids (prednisolone 1-2 mg/kg/day PO); cyclosporine (5 mg/kg PO SID) or chlorambucil (0.2 mg/kg PO every 48h) if immune-mediated; cobalamin (vitamin B12) 250-1000 µg SC weekly; add MCT oil cautiously in some dogs.

CholangiohepatitisFever, icterus, vomiting, anorexia, weight loss, and lethargy-especially in cats with inflammatory liver disease; may progress to hepatic encephalopathy.
Treatment Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5-25 mg/kg PO BID), metronidazole (10-15 mg/kg PO BID), ursodeoxycholic acid (10-15 mg/kg PO SID), SAMe (18-20 mg/kg PO SID), and IV fluids and antiemetics as supportive care. Consider liver biopsy to guide therapy.

UremiaVomiting, halitosis with a metallic or ammonia odor, oral ulcers, lethargy, anorexia, dehydration, and signs of neurologic dysfunction (e.g., twitching, seizures) due to accumulation of uremic toxins from severe kidney dysfunction.
Treatment Aggressive IV fluid therapy (e.g., 0.9% NaCl at 60–90 mL/kg/day) to restore hydration and promote diuresis. Anti-emetics (e.g., maropitant 1 mg/kg SC or PO SID), gastric protectants (e.g., famotidine 0.5–1 mg/kg IV or PO BID), phosphate binders (e.g., aluminum hydroxide 30–90 mg/kg/day mixed with food), and renal diet. Dialysis or renal replacement therapy in nonresponsive or oliguric cases.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) Progressive muscle weakness, atrophy, generalized paresis, and loss of motor function; cranial nerves typically spared; rare and poorly documented in cats and dogs but suspected in some canine degenerative motor neuron diseases.
Treatment No definitive cure. Supportive care includes physical therapy, assisted mobility, and nutritional support. Riluzole (used off-label; 2–4 mg/kg PO BID) may slow progression in experimental cases, though efficacy in veterinary patients is uncertain. Close monitoring and humane euthanasia may be necessary as condition progresses.

Cerebral PalsyNon-progressive motor dysfunction presenting as ataxia, hypertonia, poor coordination, tremors, or abnormal posture from birth or early development; may be due to prenatal or perinatal brain injury or malformation. Affected animals are alert and aware but have impaired voluntary motor control.
TreatmentNo cure; management focuses on supportive care. Physical rehabilitation (balance and strength exercises), hydrotherapy, and passive range-of-motion exercises improve mobility. Muscle relaxants like baclofen (1–2 mg/kg PO BID) or gabapentin (10–20 mg/kg PO BID–TID) may help reduce spasticity. Provide soft bedding, assistive mobility aids, and frequent monitoring for pressure sores or orthopedic complications.

Autonomic NeuropathyUrinary retention, fecal incontinence, dry mucous membranes, regurgitation (due to megaesophagus), bradycardia or tachycardia, and abnormal pupil responses. Can be associated with diabetes mellitus, toxins, or idiopathic causes.
Treatment Treat underlying cause (e.g., insulin for diabetes mellitus). For urinary retention, use bethanechol (1.25–7.5 mg PO BID) to stimulate bladder contraction. Metoclopramide (0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO TID) or cisapride (0.1–0.5 mg/kg PO TID) can aid gastrointestinal motility. Ensure hydration and monitor for aspiration pneumonia in cases of megaesophagus. Long-term care involves supportive nursing and environmental adjustments.

Diverticular DiseaseRare in dogs and cats; may present with intermittent tenesmus, soft or mucoid stools, abdominal discomfort, and occasionally rectal prolapse. Can involve colonic diverticula that become inflamed or infected.
TreatmentHigh-fiber diet (e.g., psyllium 1 tsp mixed with food BID), stool softeners (e.g., lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID), and broad-spectrum antibiotics if diverticulitis is suspected (e.g., metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days). Surgical resection may be required in chronic or complicated cases with persistent inflammation or obstruction.

Colorectal CancerTenesmus, hematochezia, chronic constipation, ribbon-like stools, and weight loss. Palpable rectal mass may be detected during examination; adenocarcinoma is the most common malignant type in dogs, rare in cats.
Treatment Surgical resection is the primary treatment for localized tumors—marginal excision or full-thickness rectal pull-through depending on tumor location and size. NSAIDs such as piroxicam (0.3 mg/kg PO SID) may offer adjunctive benefit due to COX-2 inhibition. For non-resectable or metastatic cases, palliative therapy includes stool softeners, low-residue diet, and radiation or chemotherapy (e.g., carboplatin 200–250 mg/m² IV q3w, depending on tolerance). Prognosis depends on tumor type, location, and completeness of excision.

Hirschsprung’s DiseaseChronic constipation, abdominal distension, failure to thrive, and straining to defecate (tenesmus) due to congenital absence of enteric ganglion cells, most commonly in the distal colon and rectum.
TreatmentDefinitive treatment is surgical resection of the aganglionic segment (sub-total colectomy). Medical management may offer temporary relief and includes stool softeners (e.g., lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID–TID), enemas, and low-residue or high-fiber diets depending on stool consistency. Surgical correction should be performed early to prevent megacolon and irreversible colon dilation. Histopathology is essential for diagnosis and surgical planning.

Solitary Rectal Ulcer Syndrome (SRUS) Tenesmus, blood-streaked mucus in feces, intermittent constipation or diarrhea, and discomfort during defecation; may be associated with excessive straining or rectal prolapse in dogs and cats.
Treatment Management focuses on reducing straining and inflammation. Dietary modification to include highly digestible, low-residue diets; stool softeners such as lactulose (0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID–TID); and anti-inflammatory therapy with sucralfate (0.5–1 g PO BID 30 min before meals) to promote mucosal healing. In refractory or recurrent cases, surgical resection of the ulcerated area or colopexy may be required. Treat underlying causes like rectal prolapse or megacolon if present.

Systemic SclerosisRare in dogs and extremely rare in cats; characterized by progressive skin thickening, stiffness, alopecia, decreased range of motion, and systemic signs such as dysphagia, muscle atrophy, or organ fibrosis. May resemble autoimmune or fibrosing disorders.
TreatmentSupportive and symptomatic. Immunosuppressive therapy with corticosteroids (prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO), sometimes combined with azathioprine (2 mg/kg PO SID in dogs), may help slow progression. Pentoxifylline (15–25 mg/kg PO BID) can aid microcirculation. Physical therapy is recommended to preserve mobility. Regular monitoring for systemic involvement (lungs, kidneys, GI tract) is critical. Prognosis is guarded to poor due to progressive fibrosis.

Neurogenic Bowel Dysfunction Fecal incontinence or chronic constipation associated with spinal cord injury, cauda equina syndrome, or degenerative neurological diseases; straining, reduced perianal reflexes, and difficulty posturing to defecate are common.
Treatment Management includes stool softeners (e.g., lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID), prokinetic agents such as cisapride (0.1–0.5 mg/kg PO BID-TID, especially effective in cats), and scheduled manual evacuation of the colon. High-fiber diets or low-residue diets may help depending on constipation severity. Consistent toileting routines and physical therapy improve outcomes. Address underlying neurological cause when possible. Regular monitoring and adjustment of medication are essential for long-term management.

Cognitive ImpairmentDisorientation, altered interactions with family, changes in sleep-wake cycles, house soiling, reduced activity, and anxiety—commonly seen in senior cats and dogs with Canine Cognitive Dysfunction or Feline Cognitive Dysfunction.
Treatment Nutritional support with diets rich in antioxidants and mitochondrial cofactors (e.g., Hill’s® b/d or Purina® NeuroCare), selegiline (0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID in dogs), and environmental enrichment. SAMe (S-adenosylmethionine) at 18–20 mg/kg PO SID may be beneficial. Melatonin (0.5–3 mg PO in dogs, 1.5 mg PO in cats at night) may improve sleep. Maintain a consistent routine and minimize stress. Cognitive decline is progressive; early intervention improves quality of life.

Lactose IntoleranceDiarrhea, flatulence, abdominal discomfort, and bloating occurring within hours of ingesting dairy products. More common in adult cats and dogs due to reduced lactase enzyme activity.
TreatmentEliminate all lactose-containing foods from the diet. Provide lactose-free alternatives if dairy-based nutrition is needed. No medication is required unless secondary dehydration occurs—treat with oral or subcutaneous fluids (10–20 mL/kg) as needed. Educate owners that symptoms are dietary and not allergic. Persistent signs despite dietary change warrant further GI workup.

Ovarian CystsProlonged estrus, vulvar swelling, abnormal heat cycles, alopecia, and mammary gland enlargement. May cause infertility or behavioral changes in intact females.
TreatmentDefinitive treatment is ovariohysterectomy (spay). For breeding animals, ultrasound-guided aspiration may be attempted but has a high recurrence rate. Hormonal suppression using GnRH analogs (e.g., deslorelin implant 4.7 mg SC) can be considered in select cases, but is not curative. Pre-surgical stabilization includes IV fluids and analgesia (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO/SC SID for dogs; 0.05 mg/kg for cats).

Gastritis (Dogs and Cats)Prominent symptoms include acute vomiting, anorexia, abdominal discomfort, salivation, and dehydration. Chronic cases may present with intermittent vomiting, weight loss, and lethargy. Often caused by dietary indiscretion, infections, foreign bodies, medications (e.g., NSAIDs), or systemic disease.
TreatmentAcute cases: NPO (nothing by mouth) for 12–24 hours, followed by a bland diet (boiled chicken and rice) in small frequent meals. Administer maropitant 1 mg/kg SC or PO once daily for up to 5 days. Omeprazole 0.7–1.0 mg/kg PO SID and sucralfate 0.5–1 g/cat or 0.5–1 g/10 kg dog PO BID–TID for mucosal protection. IV fluids if dehydration is present. In chronic or refractory cases, investigate for Helicobacter spp. or food hypersensitivity.

Gastroenteritis (Dogs and Cats)Acute onset of vomiting, diarrhea (may be bloody), abdominal discomfort, dehydration, anorexia, and lethargy. Often caused by dietary indiscretion, infections (bacterial, viral, parasitic), toxins, or secondary to systemic illness.
TreatmentMild cases: Withhold food for 12–24 hours, then introduce bland diet (e.g., boiled chicken and rice) for 3–5 days.
Moderate to severe cases: IV fluid therapy using Lactated Ringer’s or Normosol-R at 60–90 mL/kg/day; antiemetics such as maropitant 1 mg/kg SC or PO SID; metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for suspected bacterial overgrowth or hemorrhagic gastroenteritis; omeprazole 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID if gastric ulcers are suspected.
Probiotics and gastrointestinal diets may aid recovery. Monitor hydration, electrolyte balance, and response to therapy.

Foreign Body Ingestion (Dogs and Cats) Prominent signs include vomiting, anorexia, abdominal pain (prayer posture), lethargy, drooling, and in cats, persistent gagging or pawing at the mouth. In chronic or obstructive cases, signs may progress to dehydration, bloating, or shock. Linear foreign bodies (e.g., thread) are especially dangerous in cats and can cause intestinal plication and perforation.
TreatmentInitial stabilization with IV fluids and electrolyte correction. Abdominal radiographs and/or ultrasound to confirm location and type of foreign body. Endoscopic retrieval is preferred for gastric objects without obstruction. Surgical removal (enterotomy or gastrotomy) is indicated for obstructive, sharp, or linear foreign bodies. Postoperative care includes IV fluids, opioids for pain control, and bland diet reintroduction. Antibiotics such as cefazolin 22 mg/kg IV TID may be used perioperatively. Prevent recurrence through owner education and environmental management.

Colitis (Dogs and Cats)Frequent small-volume diarrhea, straining (tenesmus), presence of mucus and/or fresh blood in stool, urgency, flatulence, and abdominal discomfort. Often caused by dietary intolerance, stress, parasites (e.g., Trichuris vulpis in dogs), bacterial overgrowth, or inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).
TreatmentDietary: Transition to a highly digestible or novel protein diet. Fiber supplementation (e.g., psyllium 1 tsp/10 kg/day mixed with food).
Medical: Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days or tylosin 20 mg/kg PO BID for chronic cases. Deworm with fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO once daily for 3–5 days. In IBD cases, prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO with gradual taper. Consider probiotics and stress-reduction strategies. Monitor response and adjust based on underlying cause.

Canine Adenovirus Type 2 infectionHarsh, dry cough, retching, nasal discharge, and sometimes fever and lethargy.
TreatmentSupportive care including rest, hydration, and nutritional support. Antitussives like hydrocodone (0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q6-12h) may be used for persistent coughing under veterinary guidance. In cases with secondary bacterial infections, doxycycline (5 mg/kg PO q12h) or amoxicillin-clavulanate (12.5-25 mg/kg PO q12h) may be prescribed. Vaccination is the most effective prevention.

Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones)Flank pain, hematuria, lethargy, decreased appetite, and signs of renal dysfunction or obstruction in severe cases.
TreatmentManagement depends on stone type, location, and renal function. If asymptomatic and non-obstructive, monitoring with serial imaging is appropriate. For calcium oxalate nephroliths, no dissolution protocol exists — surgical or percutaneous nephrolithotomy may be needed. For struvite nephroliths, dissolution via urinary acidifying diets (e.g., Hill’s s/d) and antimicrobials like amoxicillin (11–15 mg/kg PO q12h) if infection is present. For urate stones, allopurinol (5–15 mg/kg PO q24h) combined with a low-purine diet may be effective. Monitor renal parameters and stone progression closely during therapy.

Testicular TorsionAcute scrotal swelling, severe pain, lethargy, anorexia, and reluctance to move. In cryptorchid animals, signs may include abdominal pain and vomiting.
TreatmentImmediate surgical intervention is required. Orchiectomy (castration) is the treatment of choice. In cryptorchid cases, exploratory laparotomy may be necessary to locate and remove the torsed testis. Analgesics like meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg PO or SC once daily) and opioids such as buprenorphine (0.01–0.02 mg/kg IM or IV q8–12h) for pain control are indicated. Prompt diagnosis and surgery are critical to prevent necrosis and systemic complications.

Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD)Back pain, reluctance to move, hind limb weakness or paralysis, ataxia, and loss of bladder or bowel control in severe cases.
TreatmentSeverity-dependent. Mild cases: strict cage rest for 4–6 weeks, NSAIDs such as carprofen (2.2 mg/kg PO q12h) or meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg PO once daily), and muscle relaxants like methocarbamol (20–30 mg/kg PO q8h). Severe or non-ambulatory cases: advanced imaging followed by surgical decompression (hemilaminectomy or ventral slot). Post-op: analgesia with opioids such as fentanyl CRI (2–5 mcg/kg/hr IV), and physiotherapy. Early intervention significantly improves prognosis.

Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 InfectionSneezing, ocular and nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, keratitis, fever, and inappetence. May cause corneal ulcers and chronic upper respiratory signs.
TreatmentSupportive care including hydration, nutritional support, and steam therapy. Antiviral therapy: famciclovir (40–90 mg/kg PO q8–12h) is the drug of choice. Topical antivirals for ocular involvement may include idoxuridine or cidofovir 1% ophthalmic drops (1 drop OU q12h). Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as doxycycline (5 mg/kg PO q12h) may be used if secondary bacterial infection is suspected. Stress reduction and vaccination are key to managing recurrent episodes.

Chlamydia felis InfectionConjunctivitis with unilateral or bilateral ocular discharge, blepharospasm, chemosis, and mild upper respiratory signs such as sneezing.
TreatmentSystemic antibiotics are essential. Doxycycline (10 mg/kg PO q24h for 3–4 weeks) is the first-line treatment; continue for at least 2 weeks beyond clinical resolution. In young kittens or pregnant queens, azithromycin (5–10 mg/kg PO q24h) may be considered. Topical tetracycline ophthalmic ointment (q8–12h) can be used adjunctively. Isolation of affected cats and vaccination can help reduce spread in multi-cat environments.

Cryptococcosis in catsChronic nasal discharge (often unilateral), sneezing, nasal swelling, lymphadenopathy, and neurological signs if CNS is involved. Ocular lesions and skin nodules may also be present.
TreatmentLong-term antifungal therapy is required. Fluconazole (50–100 mg/cat PO q12–24h) is commonly used for nasal and CNS involvement due to good penetration. Itraconazole (5–10 mg/kg PO q24h) is also effective but has less CNS penetration. Amphotericin B (0.5–1 mg/kg IV q48–72h) may be used in severe or refractory cases, often combined with flucytosine (50–100 mg/kg/day divided q6–12h PO). Therapy should continue for at least 2 months beyond clinical resolution and negative antigen titers.

Tooth Root AbscessFacial swelling (often below the eye), pain when eating, halitosis, drooling, and reluctance to chew. May lead to draining tracts or systemic signs like fever and lethargy.
TreatmentDefinitive treatment requires dental extraction of the affected tooth under anesthesia. Pre- and post-operative antibiotics such as clindamycin (5.5–11 mg/kg PO q12h) or amoxicillin-clavulanate (12.5–25 mg/kg PO q12h) are commonly used. Analgesia with NSAIDs (e.g., meloxicam 0.05–0.1 mg/kg PO q24h) or opioids (e.g., buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg buccal or IM q8–12h) is essential. Prompt dental intervention prevents systemic spread and recurrence.

Nasal NeoplasiaChronic nasal discharge (often bloody or purulent), sneezing, facial deformity, nasal obstruction, and occasional neurologic signs such as seizures if there is intracranial extension.
TreatmentDefinitive treatment often involves radiation therapy, which provides the best control-administered in fractions (e.g., 3 Gy x 15-20 sessions). Chemotherapy such as carboplatin (200-250 mg/m² IV q3-4 weeks) may be considered, especially for lymphoma. Surgical debulking may be an option in select cases but is generally limited due to anatomical constraints. NSAIDs like piroxicam (0.3 mg/kg PO q24h) can offer palliative benefit for carcinomas. Early diagnosis and multimodal therapy improve quality of life and survival time.

Chronic RhinitisPersistent sneezing, nasal discharge (serous, mucoid, or purulent), congestion, and occasional reverse sneezing. More common in cats, often with a history of prior viral infection.
TreatmentManagement focuses on symptom control and reducing inflammation. Antibiotics like doxycycline (5 mg/kg PO q12h for 2–4 weeks) may help if secondary infection is suspected. For inflammation, antihistamines (e.g., cetirizine 1 mg/kg PO q24h) or corticosteroids like prednisolone (0.5–1 mg/kg PO q24h) may be used cautiously, especially in cats. Nebulization and saline nasal flushes can improve airflow. Chronic cases often require long-term or intermittent therapy and regular monitoring.

Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca (Dry Eye)Thick, mucoid ocular discharge, conjunctival redness, dull or dry corneal surface, squinting, and chronic eye infections. Common in dogs; rare in cats.
TreatmentPrimary therapy includes topical immunomodulators such as cyclosporine A 0.2% ophthalmic ointment (apply OU q12h) or tacrolimus 0.02–0.03% solution (1 drop OU q12h) to stimulate tear production. Artificial tears (e.g., carboxymethylcellulose drops q4–6h) provide lubrication. Topical antibiotics like neomycin-polymyxin B-bacitracin ointment may be used if secondary infection is present. Regular monitoring of tear production using the Schirmer tear test is essential for long-term management.

GlaucomaSudden onset of eye pain, redness, vision loss, dilated pupil, and a cloudy or bluish cornea. In chronic cases, globe enlargement (buphthalmos) and optic nerve damage occur.
TreatmentImmediate reduction of intraocular pressure (IOP) is critical. Topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitors such as dorzolamide 2% (1 drop OU q8–12h) and beta-blockers like timolol 0.5% (1 drop OU q12h) are commonly used. Systemic carbonic anhydrase inhibitors like methazolamide (2–5 mg/kg PO q12h) may be added. Mannitol (1–2 g/kg IV over 20–30 min) is used for acute IOP spikes. In chronic or refractory cases, enucleation or laser cyclophotocoagulation may be necessary. Prompt diagnosis and lifelong monitoring are essential to preserve vision and relieve discomfort.

UveitisRed, painful eye, photophobia, excessive tearing, miosis (constricted pupil), corneal edema, and aqueous flare. May be secondary to trauma, infection, immune-mediated disease, or neoplasia.
TreatmentAddress the underlying cause if identified (e.g., infections like Toxoplasma gondii or Feline Infectious Peritonitis in cats). Topical corticosteroids such as prednisolone acetate 1% (1 drop OU q6-8h) or NSAIDs like flurbiprofen 0.03% (1 drop OU q8-12h) reduce inflammation. Systemic anti-inflammatories like prednisolone (0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12-24h) may be needed. Mydriatics such as atropine 1% (1 drop OU q12-24h) help prevent synechiae and reduce pain.Frequent monitoring is critical to avoid complications such as glaucoma or blindness.

Nasolacrimal Duct ObstructionChronic tearing (epiphora), tear staining beneath the eyes, conjunctivitis, and recurrent eye infections. May result from congenital malformation, inflammation, foreign bodies, or scarring.
TreatmentInitial management includes flushing of the nasolacrimal duct under sedation or anesthesia using a lacrimal cannula. If infection is suspected, topical antibiotics such as tobramycin (1-2 drops OU q8h) are used. Anti-inflammatories like topical dexamethasone 0.1% (1 drop OU q6-8h) may reduce swelling and improve drainage. In chronic or refractory cases, dacryocystorhinostomy (surgical creation of a new drainage opening) may be required. Diagnosis is confirmed via fluorescein dye test and duct flushing; prompt intervention helps prevent chronic ocular irritation.

YersiniosisFever, vomiting, diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal pain, and lethargy. Caused by Yersinia enterocolitica or Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, typically through ingestion of contaminated food or water.
TreatmentSupportive care includes fluid therapy for dehydration and electrolyte imbalance. Antibiotic therapy is recommended in severe or systemic cases: doxycycline (5-10 mg/kg PO q12-24h) or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (15–30 mg/kg PO q12h). In cases of sepsis or persistent symptoms, amoxicillin-clavulanate (12.5-25 mg/kg PO q12h) may be used. Culture and sensitivity testing should guide antibiotic choice; monitor for zoonotic potential and ensure proper hygiene and handling.

Feline LeishmaniasisChronic weight loss, non-healing skin ulcers, nodular dermatitis, lymphadenopathy, ocular lesions (e.g., uveitis), and lethargy. Caused by Leishmania infantum, typically transmitted via sandfly bites; more common in endemic areas.
TreatmentTreatment is challenging and often requires combination therapy. Allopurinol (10-20 mg/kg PO q12h) is commonly used as a first-line agent for long-term management. Meglumine antimoniate (50 mg/kg SC q24h for 28 days) may be used in severe cases but with caution due to potential nephrotoxicity. Monitor kidney parameters and hematologic profile throughout treatment. Diagnosis should be confirmed via cytology, serology, or PCR. Prognosis varies and depends on immune status and systemic involvement.

AlopeciaPatchy or generalized hair loss, often without inflammation or pruritus. Common causes include endocrine disorders (e.g., hypothyroidism, Cushing’s disease), parasitic infestations (Demodex, fleas), fungal infections (Dermatophytes), allergies, and stress-related overgrooming, particularly in cats.
TreatmentTreatment depends on the underlying cause. For parasitic alopecia, use isoxazoline class drugs like fluralaner (25-50 mg/kg PO every 12 weeks). For dermatophytosis, itraconazole (5-10 mg/kg PO q24h) is effective for 3-6 weeks. Endocrine-related alopecia may require Levothyroxine sodium(T4 tablet)0.02 mg/kg PO q12h for hypothyroidism or trilostane (2-3 mg/kg PO q24h for Cushing's). In psychogenic cases, environmental enrichment and anxiolytics like fluoxetine (0.5-1 mg/kg PO q24h) may be indicated. Diagnosis is made through skin scraping, fungal culture, endocrine testing, and biopsy if needed. Monitoring and treating the primary disease is essential for fur regrowth.

Alopecia AreataWell-defined, non-inflammatory patches of hair loss primarily on the head, neck, and trunk. The skin appears normal without scaling or pruritus. It is an autoimmune condition targeting hair follicles and is rare in both dogs and cats.
TreatmentNo definitive cure exists, but spontaneous regrowth may occur. Immunomodulatory therapy such as cyclosporine (5 mg/kg PO q24h) may help manage cases with progressive hair loss. In some instances, corticosteroids like prednisolone (1-2 mg/kg PO q24h, then taper) may be tried. Avoid overuse due to long-term side effects. Diagnosis is made via skin biopsy and ruling out dermatophytosis or demodicosis. Prognosis is generally good if systemic disease is absent.

Portal HypertensionAscites, vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, lethargy, and signs of hepatic encephalopathy (e.g., disorientation, seizures). It results from increased pressure in the portal venous system due to hepatic fibrosis, cirrhosis, or vascular anomalies like portal vein hypoplasia.
TreatmentTreatment targets the underlying cause and symptom control. Low-sodium diets and diuretics like spironolactone (2-4 mg/kg PO q12-24h) help manage ascites. Lactulose (0.5-2 mL/kg PO q8h) is used for hepatic encephalopathy by reducing ammonia absorption. Beta-blockers such as propranolol (0.2-0.6 mg/kg PO q8-12h) may reduce portal pressure in select cases. In cases secondary to congenital portosystemic shunts, surgical attenuation (e.g., ameroid constrictor placement) may be required. Ultrasound, CT angiography, and liver biopsy aid in diagnosis and monitoring. Prognosis varies depending on cause and response to therapy.

Pseudomonas InfectionOtitis externa, Otitis media, ulcerative keratitis, chronic non-healing wounds, and urinary tract infections. Clinical signs include purulent discharge, pruritus, erythema, head shaking (ear infections), ocular pain with corneal ulcers, and malodorous or necrotic wound exudate.
TreatmentAggressive antimicrobial therapy guided by culture and sensitivity is essential due to resistance patterns. Common effective agents include fluoroquinolones (enrofloxacin 5-10 mg/kg PO or IV q24h), aminoglycosides (gentamicin 6-10 mg/kg IV q24h, or topical formulations for ears and eyes), and polymyxin B/colistin (topical). For otitis, ear flushing and topical antibiotics like ciprofloxacin 0.3% or gentamicin 0.3% are used. In keratitis, tobramycin 0.3% eye drops q4-6h and serum eye drops are applied. Wounds may require surgical debridement and topical antimicrobials. Long-term therapy is often needed. Monitoring for renal toxicity and resistance is crucial during systemic aminoglycoside use.

Right-Side Heart FailureAscites, hepatomegaly, pleural effusion, peripheral edema, jugular vein distension, and exercise intolerance. Clinical signs include abdominal distension, respiratory distress (due to effusion), and lethargy.
TreatmentManagement includes diuretics such as furosemide (1-4 mg/kg PO or IV q8-12h) to reduce fluid overload, and spironolactone (1-2 mg/kg PO q12-24h) as an aldosterone antagonist. ACE inhibitors like enalapril (0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q12-24h) are used to reduce preload and afterload. Pimobendan (0.1-0.3 mg/kg PO q12h) may be added if myocardial support is needed. Therapeutic thoracocentesis or abdominocentesis is indicated for severe effusions causing distress. Close monitoring of electrolytes, renal function, and response to therapy is essential. Treating underlying conditions (e.g., heartworm, tricuspid dysplasia) is also critical.

Left-Side Heart FailureDyspnea, tachypnea, pulmonary crackles, cough, exercise intolerance, and orthopnea. In severe cases, signs of pulmonary edema such as frothy nasal discharge and cyanosis may be observed.
TreatmentImmediate therapy includes oxygen supplementation and diuretics like furosemide (2-4 mg/kg IV q6-8h or CRI for acute cases; 1-2 mg/kg PO q12h for chronic management). ACE inhibitors such as enalapril (0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q12-24h) or benazepril (0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q24h) reduce preload and afterload. Pimobendan (0.1-0.3 mg/kg PO q12h) is recommended to enhance myocardial contractility in dogs. In cats, use cautiously depending on the underlying cardiomyopathy. Thoracocentesis may be indicated in pleural effusion cases. Ongoing monitoring of respiratory rate, renal function, and electrolytes is vital during therapy. Addressing the primary cardiac disease, such as mitral valve disease or cardiomyopathy, is crucial for long-term success.

Hypoproteinemia Secondary to Protein-Losing Enteropathy(PLE)Weight loss, chronic diarrhea, ascites, peripheral edema, and poor coat condition. In severe cases, dyspnea due to pleural effusion may occur. Often presents with hypoalbuminemia and hypoglobulinemia on bloodwork.
TreatmentTreatment is based on the underlying cause (e.g., lymphangiectasia, IBD, neoplasia). Nutritional support includes a highly digestible, low-fat, novel or hydrolyzed protein diet. Prednisolone is often used at immunosuppressive doses (1-2 mg/kg PO q12-24h) in suspected inflammatory cases. In more severe or refractory cases, add cyclosporine (5 mg/kg PO q24h) or chlorambucil (0.1-0.2 mg/kg PO q24-48h). Supplement cobalamin (250-1,000 µg SC weekly for 6 weeks, then monthly). Antiplatelet agents like clopidogrel (1-2 mg/kg PO q24h) may reduce the risk of thromboembolism. Monitoring serum albumin, total protein, body weight, and clinical response is essential. Gradual tapering of immunosuppressants is advised once remission is achieved.

Acromegaly in dogsPrognathism, widened interdental spaces, thickened skin and soft tissues of the head and neck, inspiratory stridor, lethargy, exercise intolerance, and insulin-resistant diabetes mellitus. Most common in intact older female dogs due to excessive progesterone-induced growth hormone secretion.
TreatmentDefinitive treatment involves ovariohysterectomy to eliminate progesterone sources in intact females. In diabetic dogs, insulin therapy often requires high doses (e.g., NPH or glargine 1-2 U/kg SC q12h) with close monitoring. For refractory cases, cabergoline (0.1 mg/kg PO twice weekly) may help suppress growth hormone release. Radiation therapy is rarely used in dogs but may be considered if a pituitary mass is identified. Management of concurrent diabetes and regular monitoring of insulin needs, glucose curves, and clinical signs is critical for long-term care.

Clostridium perfringens Type A EnterotoxicosisAcute or chronic large bowel diarrhea, hematochezia, increased fecal mucus, tenesmus, abdominal discomfort, and flatulence. Often associated with dietary changes, stress, or concurrent gastrointestinal disease.
TreatmentSupportive care includes dietary management (easily digestible or high-fiber diet) and fluid therapy if dehydrated. Antibiotics are recommended in moderate to severe cases. Amoxicillin-clavulanate (12.5-25 mg/kg PO q12h), metronidazole (10-15 mg/kg PO q12h), or tylosin (20-40 mg/kg PO q12h) are effective against Clostridium spp. Fecal PCR testing for enterotoxin genes (cpe) can confirm diagnosis. Probiotics (e.g., Enterococcus faecium or Saccharomyces boulardii) may aid recovery. Recurrent cases require diet adjustment, stress minimization, and possibly extended antimicrobial or probiotic courses with periodic fecal re-evaluation.

PyelonephritisFever, lethargy, vomiting, polyuria, polydipsia, flank pain, and signs of lower urinary tract infection such as stranguria and hematuria. Chronic cases may show weight loss, poor appetite, and renal insufficiency.
TreatmentEmpirical antibiotic therapy should begin immediately and be adjusted based on urine culture and sensitivity. Fluoroquinolones (e.g., enrofloxacin 5-10 mg/kg PO q24h), amoxicillin-clavulanate (12.5-25 mg/kg PO q12h), or third-generation cephalosporins (e.g., cefpodoxime 5-10 mg/kg PO q24h) are commonly used. Treatment duration is typically 4-6 weeks. Ensure adequate hydration and consider IV fluids in hospitalized patients. Analgesics (e.g., buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV or transmucosally q8-12h) may be needed for pain control. Follow-up urinalysis and culture 7-10 days after initiating treatment and again post-therapy are essential to confirm resolution and avoid recurrence.

TrichomoniasisIn cats, most commonly caused by Tritrichomonas foetus, presenting with chronic large bowel diarrhea, semi-formed to liquid feces often with mucus or blood, increased frequency of defecation, and fecal incontinence. Affected cats often remain bright and maintain body condition. In dogs, it is rare but may cause genital infections or mild gastrointestinal symptoms.
TreatmentThe treatment of choice in cats is ronidazole at 30 mg/kg PO q24h for 14 days. Use with caution due to potential neurotoxicity; monitor for signs such as ataxia or seizures and discontinue if adverse effects occur. Ensure accurate dosing using compounded formulations. Supportive care includes maintaining hydration and gastrointestinal health with probiotics. In dogs, treatment is rarely needed unless symptomatic, in which case metronidazole may be used (10-15 mg/kg PO q12h for 7 days). Repeat fecal PCR testing is recommended post-treatment to confirm clearance.

Feline Coronavirus (FCoV) InfectionMost FCoV infections are subclinical or cause mild, self-limiting diarrhea. However, in some cats, especially in multicat environments, the virus can mutate into the pathogenic form responsible for feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). Signs of FIP include persistent fever unresponsive to antibiotics, weight loss, anorexia, abdominal distension (effusive form), dyspnea, neurologic signs, and ocular changes (non-effusive form).
TreatmentSupportive care for mild enteric infections includes fluid therapy and probiotics. In cases progressing to FIP, antiviral treatment with GS-441524 is the most effective option: 4-6 mg/kg PO or SC q24h for a minimum of 84 days. Higher doses (up to 10 mg/kg) may be required for neurologic or ocular forms. Monitor CBC, biochemistry, and clinical signs during treatment. Adjunctive therapy includes corticosteroids (e.g., prednisolone 1-2 mg/kg/day PO) and anti-inflammatory agents if needed. Early diagnosis and strict adherence to treatment duration significantly improve prognosis in FIP cases.

Rupture of UterusAcute abdominal pain, sudden collapse, tachycardia, pale mucous membranes, and signs of septic peritonitis such as fever, vomiting, and abdominal distension. In some cases, vaginal discharge with a foul odor may be noted if partial rupture allows communication with the vaginal canal.
TreatmentEmergency surgical intervention is essential. Perform an exploratory laparotomy to confirm diagnosis and proceed with ovariohysterectomy (OHE) to remove the ruptured uterus. Extensive abdominal lavage with warm sterile saline is required to reduce septic contamination. Administer broad-spectrum IV antibiotics such as ampicillin-sulbactam (30 mg/kg IV q8h) or a combination of enrofloxacin (5 mg/kg IV q24h) with metronidazole (10-15 mg/kg IV q12h). Provide IV fluids, analgesia (e.g., methadone 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IV q4-6h), and post-operative intensive care monitoring. Early surgical intervention significantly improves survival outcomes.

Gastroduodenal Ulceration Vomiting (often with blood), melena (black, tarry stools), anorexia, abdominal pain, lethargy, and signs of anemia such as pale mucous membranes and weakness.
In severe cases, signs of peritonitis due to perforation may develop.
Treatment Immediate medical management includes gastric acid suppression and mucosal protection.
Proton pump inhibitors such as omeprazole (0.7-1.0 mg/kg PO or IV q24h) are the cornerstone of therapy.
H2-receptor antagonists like famotidine (0.5-1.0 mg/kg IV or PO q12h) may be used adjunctively.
Sucralfate (0.5-1 g PO q8h) is recommended to coat ulcerated areas and promote healing.
If NSAID-induced, discontinue the offending agent immediately.

If perforation is suspected, surgical intervention with gastrotomy or duodenotomy and lavage is urgent.
Ongoing monitoring and re-evaluation of response to treatment are essential for full recovery.

Intestinal Ischemia and Infarction(Acute, life-threatening condition due to compromised blood flow to the intestines, often caused by volvulus, thromboembolism, or strangulating obstruction). Sudden onset of severe abdominal pain, vomiting (often with blood), diarrhea or melena, abdominal distension, hypovolemic shock (tachycardia, weak pulses, pale mucous membranes), and collapse.
TreatmentEmergency stabilization with Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg (PO) once daily in food, aggressive IV fluid therapy (shock doses: 60-90 mL/kg crystalloids in dogs, 40-60 mL/kg in cats), broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., cefotaxime 30-50 mg/kg IV q6-8h or ampicillin-sulbactam 22-30 mg/kg IV q8h), and analgesia (e.g., fentanyl CRI 2-5 µg/kg/h IV). Exploratory laparotomy is indicated to identify and resect necrotic bowel and relieve vascular compromise. In cases of thrombosis, anticoagulant therapy (e.g., heparin 75-100 IU/kg SC q8h) may be considered postoperatively. Prognosis depends on the extent of bowel involvement and speed of intervention; intensive monitoring and supportive care are critical.

Intestinal Spasm(Sudden, involuntary contractions of intestinal smooth muscle that may cause transient abdominal pain). Signs include intermittent abdominal pain, restlessness, vocalization, straining to defecate, and sometimes diarrhea or flatulence. Patients may show brief episodes of discomfort that resolve spontaneously or recur periodically.
TreatmentAntispasmodic agents such as butylscopolamine (0.2-0.3 mg/kg IM or SC q8-12h) are commonly used to relieve acute spasms. In cases associated with gastrointestinal irritation or inflammation, adjunctive therapy with anti-inflammatory medications or a bland diet may be beneficial. If stress or dietary indiscretion is a factor, dietary management and environmental modification are advised. Persistent or recurrent symptoms warrant further diagnostic evaluation to rule out underlying causes such as parasitism, food intolerance, or inflammatory bowel disease.

Acute ProstatitisLethargy, fever, painful urination, tenesmus, hematuria, and caudal abdominal pain. In intact male dogs, the prostate may be enlarged and painful on rectal palpation. Cats are rarely affected but may show vague signs such as dysuria or abdominal discomfort.
TreatmentEmpirical antibiotic therapy should be initiated while awaiting culture results. Fluoroquinolones (e.g., enrofloxacin 5-10 mg/kg PO q24h) or trimethoprim-sulfonamide (15-30 mg/kg PO q12h) are commonly used due to good prostatic penetration. Once sensitivity results are available, therapy should be adjusted and continued for 3-6 weeks. Supportive care includes IV fluids for systemic illness, analgesia (e.g., buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV or IM q6-8h), and warm compresses to relieve local discomfort. Castration is recommended following resolution to prevent recurrence. Monitor for abscess formation or septicemia, which may necessitate surgical drainage or more aggressive intervention.

Canine Epileptoid Cramping SyndromeEpisodes of muscle pain, trembling, staggering, and apparent abdominal discomfort without loss of consciousness. Affected dogs, especially Border Terriers, may show signs such as limb stiffness, salivation, vocalization, or difficulty walking. Episodes are intermittent and may be triggered by excitement, stress, or dietary factors.
TreatmentDietary management is often effective, particularly a hypoallergenic or gluten-free diet. Anticonvulsants are generally not needed unless episodes are frequent and severe. In resistant cases, benzodiazepines like diazepam (0.5-1 mg/kg IV during episodes) or gabapentin (10-20 mg/kg PO q8-12h) may provide symptomatic relief. Owners should maintain a detailed episode log and trial dietary changes under veterinary guidance to identify triggers and reduce recurrence.

Histiocytic Ulcerative ColitisChronic large bowel diarrhea, tenesmus, hematochezia, weight loss, and sometimes anemia. Most commonly affects young Boxer dogs, but has also been reported in French Bulldogs and rarely in cats. Colonoscopy reveals thickened, ulcerated colonic mucosa.
TreatmentFluoroquinolone antibiotics, particularly enrofloxacin (10-20 mg/kg PO q24h for 6-8 weeks), are the treatment of choice, targeting invasive intracellular E. coli identified in affected mucosa. Supportive dietary therapy with highly digestible or hypoallergenic diets is recommended. In resistant cases, immunosuppressive therapy (e.g., prednisone 1-2 mg/kg PO q24h tapered over weeks) may be considered, though often less effective without antimicrobial therapy. Repeat colonoscopy and biopsy may be needed to confirm resolution or guide further treatment if clinical signs persist.

MetritisFoul-smelling, purulent vulvar discharge within 1 week postpartum, fever, lethargy, anorexia, dehydration, and sometimes vomiting or diarrhea. Affected females may neglect their offspring or show signs of abdominal pain. In severe cases, septicemia and shock may develop.
TreatmentStabilization with IV fluids and broad-spectrum antibiotics is essential. Ampicillin-sulbactam (22-30 mg/kg IV q8h) or enrofloxacin (5-10 mg/kg IV or PO q24h) may be initiated while awaiting culture results. Oxytocin (0.2-0.5 IU/kg IM q4-6h for up to 3 doses) or prostaglandin F2α (0.1 mg/kg SC q12-24h) may be used cautiously in early cases to promote uterine evacuation if no obstruction is present. If medical management fails or the uterus is compromised, ovariohysterectomy is recommended. Close monitoring and neonatal care are also critical, as maternal illness may impair nursing and maternal behaviors.

Uterine TorsionAcute abdominal pain, lethargy, anorexia, vomiting, pale mucous membranes, and a distended abdomen. In pregnant animals, signs may include absence of fetal movement, dystocia, or fetal death. Uterine torsion is more often unilateral and typically occurs during late gestation or parturition.
TreatmentImmediate surgical intervention via laparotomy is required. Ovariohysterectomy is the treatment of choice, especially if uterine necrosis or fetal death is present. Stabilization before surgery includes IV fluids, analgesia (e.g., methadone 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV q4-6h), and broad-spectrum antibiotics such as cefazolin (22 mg/kg IV q8h) or ampicillin-sulbactam (22-30 mg/kg IV q8h). If fetuses are viable and the uterus salvageable, detorsion followed by cesarean section may be attempted, but recurrence risk remains high. Postoperative monitoring for sepsis, peritonitis, and hemorrhage is crucial for survival.

Septic PeritonitisSevere abdominal pain, vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, fever or hypothermia, tachycardia, tachypnea, and signs of shock such as pale mucous membranes and weak pulses. Abdominal distension and fluid wave may be palpable. In advanced cases, collapse and multi-organ dysfunction can occur.
TreatmentImmediate stabilization with aggressive IV fluid therapy (shock doses: 90 mL/kg in dogs, 60 mL/kg in cats, titrated to response), oxygen support, and broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin-sulbactam 22-30 mg/kg IV q8h plus enrofloxacin 5-10 mg/kg IV q24h). Surgical exploration is typically required to identify and repair the source of contamination (e.g., gastrointestinal perforation, ruptured abscess). Lavage with warm sterile saline and placement of abdominal drains or closed suction systems is recommended. Postoperative care includes analgesia (e.g., fentanyl CRI 2-5 µg/kg/h), nutritional support, and intensive monitoring. Prompt diagnosis and surgical management greatly influence survival; prognosis varies based on underlying cause and time to intervention.

SpermatoceleTypically asymptomatic but may present as a painless, soft to firm swelling in the epididymal region or scrotum. In some cases, discomfort, scrotal irritation, or secondary inflammation may occur. Large spermatoceles can cause local pressure effects or interfere with normal testicular function.
TreatmentDefinitive treatment is surgical excision, particularly if the lesion is enlarging, causing discomfort, or suspected to compromise fertility. Unilateral orchiectomy is often performed when the affected testicle is non-functional or extensively involved. Analgesia with NSAIDs (e.g., carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO q12h) or opioids (e.g., buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg IM or IV q6-8h) is recommended postoperatively. Histopathologic confirmation is advised to differentiate from other scrotal masses; routine castration may be considered in non-breeding animals.

Feline Allergic BronchitisDry, harsh, hacking cough; expiratory wheeze; respiratory distress; anorexia; acute bronchospasm; and a barrel chest from prolonged air trapping are commonly seen, especially in young to middle-aged cats. Clinical signs result from bronchial smooth muscle constriction (bronchoconstriction), bronchial wall edema, and excessive mucus secretion.
TreatmentAcute management includes dexamethasone sodium phosphate (2.0 mg/kg IV or IM) for immediate anti-inflammatory action. Chronic therapy may involve prednisone (0.5-1.0 mg/kg PO BID) tapered over time, or inhaled corticosteroids such as fluticasone propionate (110-220 µg per actuation via spacer BID). Bronchodilators include aminophylline (5-10 mg/kg IV q8-12h) or theophylline (20-28 mg/kg PO SID, ideally in the evening). For allergic modulation, cyproheptadine (2 mg/cat PO BID) or cyclosporine (5-10 mg/kg PO BID) can be used in refractory cases. Albuterol (90 µg per inhalation via metered-dose inhaler, up to q6-8h PRN) provides rapid relief during acute bronchospasm. Terbutaline (0.625 mg/cat PO BID or 0.01 mg/kg SC or IM q8h) is also effective. Long-term management focuses on allergen avoidance, consistent medication adherence, and regular re-evaluation to adjust dosing as needed.

Canine Rheumatoid ArthritisShifting lameness, soft tissue swelling around the joints, joint effusion, and regional lymphadenopathy are key signs. Affected joints are typically painful and warm on palpation. Chronic cases may result in joint deformity, instability, or progressive loss of function.
TreatmentAnti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive therapy is essential. Meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg PO once daily with food) is a commonly used NSAID. Immunosuppressants such as penicillamine (10-15 mg/kg PO q12h), cyclophosphamide (1.5-2.5 mg/kg PO q24h), or azathioprine (1-2 mg/kg PO q24h) may be used in conjunction with glucocorticoids like prednisolone (0.5-1 mg/kg PO q24h initially, with tapering based on response). Analgesic support may include aspirin (10 mg/kg PO q12h), carprofen (2.2 mg/kg PO q12h), etodolac (10-15 mg/kg PO q24h), or naproxen (2 mg/kg PO q48h; with caution due to GI risk). Close monitoring for adverse effects and ongoing joint support through physical therapy, weight control, and nutraceuticals is recommended for long-term management.

Aspiration PneumoniaAcute onset of respiratory distress, tachypnea, cough, fever, and lethargy are hallmark signs. Crackles and wheezes may be auscultated during inspiration and expiration. In chronic cases, signs may progress insidiously with exercise intolerance and persistent coughing. A history of vomiting, regurgitation, or food aspiration is often present.
TreatmentOxygen supplementation (via nasal cannula, mask, or oxygen cage) is essential in hypoxemic patients. Broad-spectrum antibiotics should be initiated empirically pending culture, such as ampicillin-sulbactam (22-30 mg/kg IV q8h) or enrofloxacin (5-10 mg/kg PO or IV q24h) with clindamycin (10-15 mg/kg PO or IV q12h) to cover anaerobes. Nebulization with sterile saline and coupage aids in airway clearance. Bronchodilators like aminophylline (dogs: 5-7 mg/kg PO q8-12h; cats: 4-6 mg/kg PO q12h) or theophylline (dogs: 10 mg/kg PO q12h; cats: 5-6 mg/kg PO q12h) can improve airflow. Terbutaline (dogs: 0.005-0.01 mg/kg SC q8-12h or 2.5-5 mg PO BID; cats: 0.01 mg/kg SC or 0.625 mg PO BID) and albuterol (90 µg per actuation inhaled q6-8h PRN) may also be used for bronchodilation. In severe or recurrent cases, esophageal function and swallowing reflex should be evaluated, and feeding tubes or surgical correction (e.g., cricopharyngeal myotomy) may be indicated to prevent recurrence.

Central Nervous System InflammationAggressive behavior in cats may be a manifestation of underlying CNS inflammation. Additional signs can include disorientation, altered mentation, ataxia, seizures, or hypersensitivity to touch. Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), toxoplasmosis, or immune-mediated meningoencephalitis are common differentials.
TreatmentTreatment depends on the underlying cause but often includes anti-inflammatory and anticonvulsant therapy. Prednisolone (1-2 mg/kg PO q12-24h) or dexamethasone (0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV/IM q24h) may be used to reduce inflammation. Anticonvulsants such as gabapentin (10-20 mg/kg PO q8-12h) and pregabalin (2-4 mg/kg PO q12h) help control neurologic signs and reduce anxiety. For behavioral aggression, lorazepam (0.02-0.05 mg/kg PO q12h) or clonazepam (0.1-0.2 mg/kg PO q12h) may be used cautiously due to potential for sedation. Clomipramine (0.5-1.0 mg/kg PO q24h) can be used for chronic behavioral modification. Diagnosis should include neurologic exam, MRI/CT imaging, and CSF analysis. Infectious causes such as Toxoplasma gondii should be ruled out with serology. Treatment duration may be prolonged, and monitoring for side effects is essential.

Canine Borreliosis (Lyme Disease)Intermittent lameness, shifting legs Lameness, fever, lethargy, anorexia, and lymphadenopathy are hallmark signs. Some dogs develop polyarthritis and joint swelling. In rare but serious cases, protein-losing nephropathy (Lyme nephritis) can occur, especially in retriever breeds.
TreatmentFirst-line therapy is doxycycline (10 mg/kg PO q24h or divided q12h) for 28 days. In dogs intolerant to doxycycline, amoxicillin (20 mg/kg PO q8h) or azithromycin (25 mg/kg PO q24h) may be used. Analgesic support includes NSAIDs such as carprofen (2.2 mg/kg PO q12h) or meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg PO q24h with food). For suspected Lyme nephritis, ACE inhibitors (e.g., enalapril 0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q12-24h) and a renal diet are recommended. Tick prevention with isoxazolines (e.g., afoxolaner, fluralaner) is critical. Annual screening and prompt removal of ticks within 24-48 hours reduce disease risk.

Overgrown NailsLameness, altered gait, pain while walking, reluctance to exercise, nail catching on surfaces, and broken or split claws. In severe cases, overgrowth can cause the nail to curl into the paw pad, leading to infection, bleeding, or abscess formation.
TreatmentCareful trimming using a nail clipper or rotary tool is essential. Sedation (e.g., dexmedetomidine 5-10 µg/kg IM) may be necessary in painful or anxious patients. If the nail has embedded into the pad, local anesthesia (lidocaine 2% or bupivacaine 0.25%) and minor surgical removal may be required. Systemic antibiotics (e.g., cephalexin 22-30 mg/kg PO q12h) may be indicated if infection is present. Analgesia with NSAIDs such as carprofen (2.2 mg/kg PO q12h) can reduce inflammation. Preventative care includes regular trimming every 2-4 weeks and management of underlying orthopedic or neurologic conditions that reduce normal nail wear.

Ligament SprainsLameness, localized swelling, joint instability, pain on palpation or movement, reluctance to bear weight, and reduced range of motion. Dogs may exhibit intermittent limping that worsens after activity. Sprains commonly affect the stifle (knee), carpus (wrist), or hock (ankle) joints.
TreatmentInitial management includes rest and restricted activity for 2-4 weeks. NSAIDs such as carprofen (2.2 mg/kg PO q12h) or meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg PO once daily) reduce inflammation and pain. Cold compresses during the first 48 hours followed by warm compresses promote circulation. In moderate to severe sprains, supportive bandaging or splints may be applied temporarily. Laser therapy and physiotherapy can aid recovery. For refractory or chronic cases, regenerative therapies like platelet-rich plasma (PRP) or stem cell injections may be considered. Gradual return to activity and weight management are critical to prevent recurrence.

Nail Bed InfectionsRedness, swelling, and pain around the nail bed; limping or reluctance to bear weight; discharge or pus from the base of the nail; licking or chewing at the paw; and nail discoloration or deformity. In chronic or recurrent cases, onychodystrophy (abnormal nail growth) may develop.
TreatmentTopical and systemic antibiotics are used based on severity and culture results. Empirical therapy may include cephalexin (22-30 mg/kg PO q12h for 2-4 weeks) or clindamycin (5.5-11 mg/kg PO q12h). For fungal involvement, itraconazole (5-10 mg/kg PO q24h) is indicated. Antiseptic soaks with chlorhexidine (0.05-0.1%) or povidone-iodine diluted solution can reduce local infection. Pain control includes NSAIDs such as carprofen (2.2 mg/kg PO q12h) or meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg PO q24h). Severe or unresponsive cases may require surgical nail removal. Keep the paw clean and dry, and prevent licking with an Elizabethan collar during healing.

Legg-Calvé-Perthes DiseaseProgressive hindlimb lameness, pain on manipulation of the hip joint, muscle atrophy of the affected limb, and decreased range of motion. Most commonly seen in small breed dogs (e.g., Miniature Poodles, Yorkshire Terriers) between 4-12 months of age.
TreatmentInitial conservative treatment includes strict rest, NSAIDs such as carprofen (2.2 mg/kg PO q12h) or meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg PO q24h), and physical therapy to maintain muscle mass. If lameness persists or worsens, surgical intervention is recommended. Femoral head and neck excision arthroplasty (FHO) is the preferred surgical treatment, with good outcomes in small breed dogs. Post-operative rehabilitation is crucial and includes controlled exercise, passive range-of-motion exercises, and swimming therapy. Early diagnosis and intervention greatly improve prognosis and limb function.

Feline YersiniosisAbdominal discomfort, weight loss, dehydration, and occasionally asymptomatic carriage. Infection with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis may cause acute enteritis, especially during cold and wet seasons, due to its ability to replicate in cooler temperatures.
TreatmentFirst-line antibiotics include trimethoprim-sulfonamide (20 mg/kg PO or IV q24h), doxycycline (10 mg/kg PO q12h or 5 mg/kg PO q12h with food to reduce esophageal irritation), and third-generation cephalosporins like cefpodoxime (5-10 mg/kg PO q24h). In severe or systemic cases, IV fluids, nutritional support, and antiemetics such as maropitant (1 mg/kg SC or PO q24h) are indicated. Diagnosis should be confirmed via fecal culture or PCR, and zoonotic precautions are advised due to potential human transmission.

Lymphoma (Malignant Lymphoma or Lymphosarcoma)Clinical signs vary by anatomical location and organ system involvement. Common symptoms include polyuria/polydipsia, vomiting, diarrhea, melena, weight loss, dyspnea, coughing, muffled heart sounds, pitting edema of thoracic limbs, face, and neck, ataxia, circling, blindness, seizures, sneezing, nasal discharge, and uveitis. Multicentric, alimentary, mediastinal, and extranodal forms may present differently in dogs and cats.
TreatmentRadiation therapy is effective for localized disease, especially nasal lymphoma. In dogs, multi-agent chemotherapy protocols are standard: CHOP protocol (Cyclophosphamide 250 mg/m² IV, Vincristine 0.7 mg/m² IV, Doxorubicin 30 mg/m² IV, and Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO daily tapered over 4 weeks) is most effective. Alternative agents include Dacarbazine, Mechlorethamine, Procarbazine, and Epirubicin (3 mg/m² slow IV q3wk). In cats, single-agent doxorubicin or Mitoxantrone (5-6 mg/m² IV q3-4wk) can be used, or multi-agent protocols based on anatomical form. Prognosis and survival vary by response, stage, and immunophenotype. Supportive care and antiemetics such as maropitant or ondansetron are recommended during chemotherapy.

Canine Parvovirus (CPV-2b) InfectionProfuse hemorrhagic diarrhea, fever, severe vomiting, dehydration, lethargy, anorexia, depression, and ulceration of the footpads and oral mucosa are hallmark signs. Puppies and unvaccinated dogs are most susceptible. Secondary infections and complications like sepsis or urinary tract infections are common during recovery.
TreatmentSupportive care is critical. Fluid therapy with isotonic crystalloids (e.g., Lactated Ringer's Solution or Normosol-R) at shock doses (up to 90 mL/kg IV over 1 hour, then adjusted to rehydration and maintenance) is essential. Broad-spectrum antibiotics like ampicillin (20-30 mg/kg IV q8h) and enrofloxacin (5 mg/kg IV or PO SID) are indicated to prevent secondary bacterial infections. Interferon omega (Virbagen Omega) 2.5 million units/kg IV SID for 3 consecutive days can reduce viral shedding and improve survival. Oseltamivir phosphate (2 mg/kg PO BID for 5 days) may reduce secondary bacterial translocation but should be used judiciously. Hyperimmune plasma (2 mL/kg IV) from recovered dogs provides passive immunity. Glutamine (0.3 mg/kg IV BID or 0.5 mg/kg PO SID) may support gastrointestinal mucosal recovery. Antiemetics like maropitant (1 mg/kg SC SID) and ondansetron (0.1-0.3 mg/kg IV/PO TID) are recommended to control vomiting.

Canine Interdigital FurunculosisReddish nodules or boils between the toes, painful swelling, lameness, and recurrent licking or chewing of paws are common. Lesions may rupture and drain purulent material. Often associated with secondary bacterial or fungal infections, trauma, or foreign bodies.
TreatmentWarm water compresses 2-3 times daily can aid drainage and reduce inflammation. Foot soaks using 0.05% chlorhexidine solution or diluted povidone-iodine for 10 minutes twice daily are beneficial. Topical antibiotic ointments (e.g., mupirocin) can be applied to open lesions. Systemic antibiotics based on culture and sensitivity (e.g., cefpodoxime 5-10 mg/kg PO SID or clindamycin 5.5 mg/kg PO BID) should be continued for 4-6 weeks. For fungal involvement, oral antifungals like ketoconazole (5-10 mg/kg PO SID) or itraconazole (5 mg/kg PO SID) may be administered for 30 days. Eliminating underlying causes such as allergies, obesity, or foreign bodies is crucial for long-term resolution.

Pulmonary HypertensionExercise intolerance, persistent cough, dyspnea, pulmonary crackles or wheezes, loud or split second heart sound, systolic murmurs, and palpable right-sided apex beat are key signs. In severe cases, signs of right-sided heart failure such as ascites or peripheral edema may develop. Most commonly seen in middle-aged to older, small breed dogs; less frequently diagnosed in cats.
TreatmentOxygen supplementation and mild sedation (e.g., butorphanol 0.2-0.4 mg/kg IM or IV) are essential during acute respiratory distress. Long-term therapy includes sildenafil (2-4 mg/kg PO q8-12h) as a pulmonary vasodilator. Tadalafil (1-2 mg/kg PO q24h) is an alternative. Diuretics such as furosemide (1-2 mg/kg PO or IV BID) are indicated for fluid overload. ACE inhibitors (e.g., enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO BID) may help reduce afterload. Antithrombotics like clopidogrel (1-2 mg/kg PO SID) or low-dose aspirin (0.5-1 mg/kg PO SID) may be used to prevent thromboembolism. Regular echocardiographic monitoring and identification of underlying causes (e.g., heartworm disease, chronic lung disease) are essential for effective management.

Acute Renal FailurePolyuria, oliguria, or anuria; depression; lethargy; anorexia; vomiting and diarrhea (with or without melena); petechiae; seizures; and elevated BUN and creatinine levels are prominent signs. This condition results from acute tubular injury ranging from sublethal damage to necrosis and apoptosis.
TreatmentInitial therapy focuses on aggressive IV fluid support (e.g., isotonic crystalloids at shock dose followed by maintenance with adjustments for ongoing losses). Mannitol (20% solution, 0.5-1 g/kg IV over 15-20 minutes) may be used to promote diuresis in oliguric patients. Furosemide (2-4 mg/kg IV or IM) can also aid in converting oliguric to polyuric renal failure. Seizure control, if present, includes clonazepam (0.1-0.5 mg/kg PO or IV) or gabapentin (10-20 mg/kg PO BID). Anti-emetics like maropitant (1 mg/kg SC or PO SID) and gastroprotectants (e.g., famotidine 0.5-1 mg/kg IV or PO SID) are supportive. Frequent monitoring of electrolytes, acid-base status, and urine output is critical. Dialysis may be necessary in refractory cases.

Chronic Renal FailureHistorical signs include polyuria, polydipsia, anorexia, weight loss, lethargy, vomiting, halitosis, altered consciousness, seizures, and bleeding tendencies. Physical findings may include dehydration, poor hair coat, and poor body condition. Azotemia with inadequately concentrated urine (USG <1.035 in cats, <1.030 in dogs) lasting more than 3 months confirms chronicity.
TreatmentDietary management with a renal-specific therapeutic diet is essential: moderate protein restriction, phosphorus restriction, and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation. ACE inhibitors like enalapril or benazepril (0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO SID) reduce proteinuria and slow progression. Antiemetics such as maropitant (1 mg/kg PO or SC SID) are used to control vomiting. Phosphate binders like aluminum hydroxide (30-90 mg/kg/day mixed with food) are indicated when serum phosphorus is elevated. Gabapentin (10-20 mg/kg PO BID) may be used for seizure control if needed. Regular monitoring of hydration status, blood pressure, and electrolytes is important. Subcutaneous fluid therapy is often required in advanced stages.

Feline Acute CholangiohepatitisProminent symptoms include jaundice, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, lethargy, and inappetence. Laboratory findings often show increased ALT and ALP levels, as well as elevated bilirubin. This condition results from an ascending bacterial infection of the liver and biliary tract, often part of triaditis with pancreatitis and inflammatory bowel disease in cats.
TreatmentAggressive intravenous fluid therapy and electrolyte correction are essential. Broad-spectrum antibiotics should be selected to target gram-negative and anaerobic bacteria: Ampicillin (20-22 mg/kg IV or PO TID) combined with Enrofloxacin (5 mg/kg IV or PO SID), or Cefazolin (22 mg/kg IV TID) with Enrofloxacin. Alternative regimens include Ticarcillin/clavulanic acid (33-50 mg/kg IV QID) or Cefoxitin (30 mg/kg IV TID). For oral therapy, Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (13.75 mg/kg PO BID) may be used after stabilization. Supportive care may include antiemetics (maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID), hepatoprotectants like S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe), and nutritional support via feeding tube if anorexia persists.

Feline Upper Respiratory Infection Complex / Feline Calicivirus (FCV)Key symptoms include oculonasal discharge, conjunctivitis, lethargy, anorexia, sneezing, fever, oral ulcers, excessive salivation, corneal ulcers, coughing, and varying degrees of facial, limb, or ventral edema. Highly contagious with high morbidity and typically low mortality; transmitted via direct contact, fomites, and aerosolized droplets. More severe systemic forms may cause vasculitis and edema.
TreatmentSupportive care is vital: subcutaneous fluid therapy to manage dehydration, nutritional support, and environmental humidity. Antibiotic therapy includes Doxycycline (5 mg/kg PO BID) or Amoxicillin-clavulanate (20 mg/kg PO BID) for secondary bacterial infections. Oxytetracycline ophthalmic ointment applied to the eyes TID helps conjunctivitis. Nebulized Gentamicin (diluted 1:5 in 0.9% saline) may be administered via face mask. In cases with bronchoconstriction, Albuterol via metered dose inhaler (1–2 puffs SID–BID) is effective. Antiviral therapy with famciclovir (90 mg/kg PO BID) can be considered in severe or chronic cases, especially with ocular involvement.

Canine Demodicosis (Demodectic Mange infestation)Prominent signs include erythema, papules, pruritus, oily seborrhea, hyperpigmentation, alopecia, crusts, and erosions or ulcers of the skin and mucous membranes. Demodicosis is a follicular parasitic skin disease caused by Demodex canis mites, often localized in young dogs or generalized in immunocompromised adults. Mites are transmitted from the dam during the first days of life.
TreatmentClip hair and bathe with benzoyl peroxide shampoo (2.5%-3%) to flush follicles. Apply amitraz dips (0.025%) every 7–14 days (monitor closely for adverse effects). Oral isoxazolines such as Afoxolaner (2.5 mg/kg PO monthly), Fluralaner (25 mg/kg PO every 12 weeks), or Sarolaner (2–4 mg/kg PO monthly) are now first-line due to high efficacy. Milbemycin oxime 1–2 mg/kg/day PO and Ivermectin 300–600 mcg/kg/day PO can be used but require close monitoring for neurotoxicity, especially in MDR1 mutant breeds. Moxidectin (topical or oral) at 400 mcg/kg/day is another option for refractory cases.

Immune-Mediated KeratoconjunctivitisKey signs include conjunctivitis, excessive lacrimation, mucopurulent ocular discharge, corneal opacity, discomfort, and in advanced cases, progressive vision loss or blindness. Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) is typically immune-mediated and involves reduced tear production and chronic inflammation of the ocular surface.
TreatmentTopical 0.2% cyclosporine ointment or 0.03% tacrolimus (1 drop/eye BID) are first-line immunomodulatory agents to stimulate tear production. Fusidic acid 1 drop/eye BID can be used if bacterial conjunctivitis is present. Artificial tears or lubricating gels should be applied 4–6 times daily to maintain corneal hydration. Oral cyclosporine (5–7.5 mg/kg PO SID) may be added in refractory cases. Regular Schirmer tear testing and monitoring for corneal ulceration are recommended during therapy.

Feline Idiopathic CystitisMost commonly affects young to middle-aged male cats. Clinical signs include dysuria, stranguria, pollakiuria, hematuria, inappropriate urination (periuria), and excessive licking at the prepuce or genital area. Episodes are often stress-induced and non-obstructive, with no identifiable infectious agent.
TreatmentAnalgesia is crucial: Buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg (SC or transmucosal TID) or Butorphanol 0.2-0.4 mg/kg (SC q6-8h) can be used. Environmental enrichment and stress reduction are essential. Behavioral therapy options include Amitriptyline 2.5-10 mg/cat PO SID or Clomipramine 0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO SID. Buspirone 0.5-1 mg/kg PO BID may reduce anxiety-related behaviors. Antibiotics are not recommended unless a confirmed urinary tract infection is present. Increased water intake, wet food diets, and litter box management are key to long-term control.

Epidermolysis BullosaErosions and ulcers typically occur on the skin and mucous membranes, including the footpads, oral cavity, claws, and over bony prominences of the face. Lesions in dystrophic forms may be more severe and widespread than other subtypes. This rare group of inherited mechanobullous diseases results from a defect in the structural integrity of the epidermis or basement membrane zone, leading to fragility and blister formation.
TreatmentSupportive care is the cornerstone. Affected areas should be gently cleaned and protected to avoid trauma. Immunosuppressive therapy with Levamisole 2.5 mg/kg PO every other day may provide benefit, especially in milder or inflammatory variants. Corticosteroids (e.g., Prednisone 0.5-1 mg/kg PO SID) can be used in combination with levamisole in select cases, but results are variable. Advanced cases may require pain management (e.g., tramadol 2-4 mg/kg PO TID) and wound care with hydrogel dressings. Prognosis depends on subtype and severity; severely affected animals may require humane euthanasia.

Thiamine DeficiencyMost prominent signs include vestibular ataxia, seizures, dilated pupils, opisthotonus, coma, and potentially death. Additional signs may include severe head and neck ventroflexion (especially in cats) and neuromuscular weakness. This condition can result from diets lacking sufficient thiamine, especially due to overcooking, sulfur dioxide-preserved foods, or underlying liver/kidney disease affecting thiamine metabolism.
TreatmentEarly intervention offers a fair to good prognosis. Administer thiamine hydrochloride (Vitamin B1) at 10-20 mg/kg/day IM or SC divided BID in dogs and cats for 3-5 days, then taper to oral therapy (5-10 mg/kg PO SID) for 2-3 weeks. Higher doses may be necessary in severe cases or those with seizures. Supportive care including IV fluids, anticonvulsants (e.g., diazepam 0.5 mg/kg IV), and nutritional correction is essential. Ensure proper diet without sulfite preservatives.

Feline Calicivirus InfectionMost prominent clinical signs include oral vesicles and ulcerations on the tongue, hard palate, and fauces. Affected cats may show transient fever, lameness (shifting leg lameness), conjunctivitis, and in kittens, focal interstitial pneumonia. Feline calicivirus is highly contagious with high morbidity but low mortality. It is less pathogenic to the conjunctiva compared to feline herpesvirus (FHV).
TreatmentSupportive care is essential. Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO or SC once daily (anti-inflammatory and analgesic) can help with fever and lameness. Ensure hydration via subcutaneous or IV fluids as needed. Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as doxycycline (5 mg/kg PO BID) may be given to prevent secondary bacterial infections. Specific antiviral therapy is not available for calicivirus, but supportive care, nutritional support, and nebulization may aid recovery. Isolate infected animals to reduce spread.

Bacterial CystitisMost common symptoms include pollakiuria, stranguria, hematuria, and periuria (urinating outside the litter box). Polydipsia may also be observed. Note: up to 10% of dogs may have subclinical bacteriuria with a positive urine culture and no signs. Bacterial cystitis results from ascending infection, most often involving Escherichia coli, Proteus, or Pseudomonas spp., and causes secondary inflammation of the bladder mucosa.
TreatmentEmpirical antibiotic therapy can be initiated while awaiting culture results. Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5-20 mg/kg PO BID or Cefadroxil 22-30 mg/kg PO BID are first-line options. Nitrofurantoin 4.4 mg/kg PO BID may be used for recurrent infections. Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only; use with caution in cats due to potential retinal toxicity). Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID may reduce inflammation and discomfort. Treat any underlying conditions such as diabetes mellitus, hyperadrenocorticism, or hyperthyroidism to prevent recurrence. Recheck urine culture after 7-10 days of therapy.

Bacterial Infective EndocarditisMost commonly affects medium to large breed, middle-aged male dogs. Prominent clinical signs include lameness, lethargy, anorexia, dyspnea, coughing, weakness, and occasional collapse. Cardiac findings may include a new or changing heart murmur, ventricular arrhythmias, supraventricular tachycardia, and mild fever. This condition results from microbial colonization of cardiac valves, typically the mitral or aortic, leading to erosive or proliferative lesions and progressive valvular insufficiency. Incidence is low in dogs and rare in cats.
TreatmentEmpirical treatment should begin immediately after blood cultures are drawn. For acute cases: Amikacin 20 mg/kg IV SID (monitor renal function) combined with Ticarcillin-Clavulanate 50 mg/kg IV QID. In chronic or stable cases: Imipenem 10 mg/kg SC TID or Amoxicillin-Clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO TID. Enrofloxacin 5-10 mg/kg PO SID-BID (use with caution in cats) may be added. For Bartonella-associated cases, Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID or Azithromycin 5-10 mg/kg PO SID for 7-10 days may be considered. Treatment duration is typically 6-8 weeks, and supportive therapy, including antiarrhythmics and management of heart failure, may be required. Regular monitoring with echocardiography and blood cultures is advised.

Nocardiosis in DogsProminent clinical signs include firm or fluctuant subcutaneous nodules, draining tracts with purulent discharge, typically affecting the limbs, feet, and trunk. Lameness may occur due to deep tissue or joint involvement. Nocardia spp. are gram-positive, partially acid-fast, filamentous, aerobic bacteria found in soil and decaying organic matter. Infection may result from wound contamination or inhalation, leading to cutaneous, pulmonary, or disseminated forms.
TreatmentSurgical excision and debridement of necrotic or draining lesions are often necessary. Long-term antimicrobial therapy is essential: Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) at 15-30 mg/kg PO BID is the treatment of choice. Alternative options include Amoxicillin-Clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID, Doxycycline 5-10 mg/kg PO BID, or Minocycline 5 mg/kg PO BID. Therapy duration may last 1-3 months or longer, depending on severity and response. Monitoring for hepatic or renal side effects is advised with prolonged antibiotic use.

Urinary Tract NeoplasiaMost common signs include persistent or recurrent hematuria, dysuria, stranguria, and pollakiuria. In advanced cases, urinary obstruction or hydronephrosis may occur. Transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) is the most common urinary tract neoplasm in dogs, typically affecting the bladder trigone. It is less common in cats but can present similarly.
TreatmentFirst-line therapy includes piroxicam at 0.3 mg/kg PO SID for its anti-inflammatory and antitumor effects. Vinblastine 2 mg/m² IV every 2 weeks or Mitoxantrone 5-6 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks may be combined with piroxicam. Other options include chlorambucil 4 mg/m² PO every 48 hours or newer agents like toceranib phosphate (Palladia) at 2.75 mg/kg PO EOD. Levamisole has limited supporting evidence but may be used adjunctively at 2.2 mg/kg PO SID. Urinary catheterization and surgical debulking may be considered in select cases, but complete excision is rarely feasible due to location.

Lower Urinary Tract Infection (LUTI)Common symptoms include hematuria, dysuria, pollakiuria, and stranguria. Halitosis may be associated with systemic illness or uremia. Acute abdominal pain may occur in severe or ascending infections. Infections typically affect the bladder and urethra and are more common in female dogs. Feline cases often overlap with idiopathic cystitis. Confirm with urinalysis and culture.
TreatmentEmpirical therapy should be based on culture and sensitivity where possible. Cefixime 5 mg/kg PO SID for 7-14 days is suitable for uncomplicated cases. Ceftazidime 30 mg/kg IV BID may be used in severe or hospitalized patients. Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO, SC, or IV SID for 7-10 days is effective, but use with caution in cats due to risk of retinal toxicity. Alternatives include amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5-20 mg/kg PO BID or trimethoprim-sulfonamide 15-30 mg/kg PO BID. Reassess treatment with repeat culture post-therapy.

Systemic Hypertension Most common signs include acute blindness, seizures, persistent sneezing with nasal discharge, epistaxis, and cardiopulmonary abnormalities such as dyspnea or collapse. Target organ damage commonly involves the eyes (retinal detachment), brain (neurological deficits), heart (left ventricular hypertrophy), and kidneys (proteinuria or azotemia). Systemic hypertension in dogs and cats is often secondary to chronic kidney disease, hyperthyroidism (cats), diabetes mellitus, or endocrine disorders such as Cushing's disease or pheochromocytoma.
Treatment First-line treatment in cats is amlodipine besylate at 0.125–0.25 mg/kg PO once daily. If proteinuria is present, adding telmisartan 1–2 mg/kg PO once daily or benazepril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO once or twice daily is recommended. In dogs, enalapril or benazepril at 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO once or twice daily is often used, with amlodipine 0.1–0.2 mg/kg PO once or twice daily added if hypertension persists. Hydralazine 0.5–2 mg/kg PO twice daily may be used for hypertensive emergencies or refractory cases. Adjunct therapies include atenolol 0.5–1 mg/kg PO twice daily (especially for concurrent arrhythmias), prazosin 0.5–2 mg/kg PO twice daily, phenoxybenzamine 0.25–1 mg/kg PO twice daily (in pheochromocytoma), and diazoxide starting at 5 mg/kg PO every 8 hours, gradually increasing to 20 mg/kg PO every 8 hours for acute control. Regular blood pressure monitoring and assessment of target organ damage are critical during treatment. Dose adjustments should be based on clinical response and side effects.

Granulomatous Meningoencephalitis (GME)Common clinical signs include seizures, head tilt, blindness, ataxia, circling, and other focal or multifocal neurological deficits. GME is an immune-mediated inflammatory disorder affecting the central nervous system, primarily seen in young to middle-aged small breed dogs. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs, advanced imaging (MRI), CSF analysis, and exclusion of infectious causes.
TreatmentImmunosuppressive therapy is essential: Prednisolone at 2 mg/kg/day PO initially, gradually tapering over several months based on response. Adjunctive cytarabine (50-100 mg/m² IV or SC every 12 hours for 2 days, repeated every 3-4 weeks) may improve outcomes. Other immunosuppressants such as lomustine (60-90 mg/m² PO every 6-8 weeks) or cyclosporine (5 mg/kg PO BID) can be considered in refractory cases. Seizure control with clonazepam 0.01-0.05 mg/kg PO BID or gabapentin 10-20 mg/kg PO BID to TID is recommended. Early, aggressive, and sustained immunosuppressive treatment improves prognosis, though relapses are common and long-term management is often necessary.

Histoplasmosis in Cats (Systemic Mycosis) Most prominent clinical signs include pale mucous membranes (due to anemia), progressive weight loss, dyspnea, tachypnea, harsh or crackling lung sounds, draining skin nodules, eyelid granulomas, optic neuritis, and blindness. Histoplasmosis is a systemic fungal infection caused by Histoplasma capsulatum, typically acquired via inhalation of spores from contaminated environments. The infection often begins in the lungs or gastrointestinal tract and disseminates to lymph nodes, liver, spleen, bone marrow, and eyes. Cats are more susceptible than dogs.
Treatment Itraconazole at 5–10 mg/kg PO SID is the first-line therapy and should be continued for at least 4–6 months or until 1 month beyond clinical resolution. In severe or disseminated cases, initiate treatment with Amphotericin B lipid complex at 1–3 mg/kg IV twice weekly, then transition to azoles. Fluconazole (5–10 mg/kg PO BID) may be preferred for CNS or ocular involvement due to better penetration. Topical ketoconazole preparations like creams are not effective for systemic infections and should not be used. Supportive care, nutritional support, and regular monitoring of liver enzymes and CBC are recommended during treatment.

Vacuolar and Steroid Hepatopathy Most common signs include polyuria, polyphagia, nocturnal restlessness, excessive panting, progressive weight gain, ventral and lateral alopecia, muscle wasting, and a characteristic pendulous abdomen. Palpable hepatomegaly is common. Serum ALP is often markedly increased, while ALT may be mildly elevated. Icterus is typically absent. This condition is associated with chronic exposure to exogenous corticosteroids or endogenous steroid overproduction, such as with hyperadrenocorticism. Terriers may be predisposed. Steroid hepatopathy is rarely documented in cats.
Treatment Gradual tapering and discontinuation of exogenous glucocorticoids is the cornerstone of management. If due to endogenous steroid excess, treat the underlying endocrine disorder (e.g., trilostane at 1-2 mg/kg PO SID for hyperadrenocorticism). Supportive liver therapy includes ursodeoxycholic acid at 10-15 mg/kg PO SID-BID and S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) at 18-20 mg/kg PO SID. Monitor liver enzyme trends and clinical signs over time. Prognosis is generally good with removal of the inciting cause and supportive care.

Cryptosporidiosis Clinical presentation varies; many infections are asymptomatic. Most commonly presents as small-bowel diarrhea, especially in young or immunocompromised animals. In cats, anorexia and weight loss may occur. Chronic large-bowel diarrhea is less common but possible. Caused by Cryptosporidium canis in dogs and Cryptosporidium felis in cats, this protozoan infection is zoonotic and typically transmitted via fecal-oral contamination.
Treatment Azithromycin 10-15 mg/kg PO SID for 7-10 days in both dogs and cats is considered first-line therapy. Tylosin at 11 mg/kg PO BID mixed in food for 21-28 days may also be effective. Paromomycin 150 mg/kg PO SID for 5 days can be used in refractory cases but must be administered with extreme caution due to its nephrotoxic potential. Supportive care including hydration and nutritional support is essential, especially in young or debilitated animals.

Acute Feline Upper Respiratory Tract DiseaseSneezing, serous to mucopurulent oculonasal discharge, conjunctivitis (often unilateral or bilateral with Chlamydophila felis), fever, lethargy, anorexia, dehydration, and lingual/oral ulcers (more common with Feline calicivirus). This is a common multifactorial syndrome in cats, particularly in young kittens or crowded environments. Major pathogens include Feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1), Feline calicivirus (FCV), Chlamydophila felis, and Bordetella bronchiseptica.
Treatment Supportive care is essential: hydration, nutritional support, nebulization, and maintaining airway patency. For bacterial involvement, especially Chlamydophila felis: doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID for 28 days is the treatment of choice. Alternatively, azithromycin 5-10 mg/kg PO SID for 5-10 days may be used. Antiviral therapy (e.g., famciclovir 40-90 mg/kg PO BID for FHV-1) may be beneficial in severe or recurrent cases. Vaccination helps reduce disease severity and spread but does not prevent infection.

Arcobacter cryaerophilus Infection Chronic vomiting, bile-stained vomitus, diarrhea, progressive weight loss, and severe emaciation. This emerging gastrointestinal pathogen has been identified in dogs with chronic enteritis and may be associated with foodborne or waterborne sources. Often underdiagnosed, it may present similarly to other causes of chronic enteropathy.
Treatment Antimicrobial therapy includes ceftiofur 2.2 mg/kg SC SID or cefotaxime 30 mg/kg IV/IM/SC BID. Oral cefuroxime may be used at 10-15 mg/kg BID. Adjunctive treatment includes metronidazole 10-15 mg/kg PO BID for 10-14 days and doxycycline or tetracycline 10 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days. Bismuth subsalicylate may be added at 0.5-1 mL/kg PO TID for mucosal protection. For spasmodic symptoms, butylscopolamine (0.3-0.5 mg/kg IM or PO BID) may provide symptomatic relief. Probiotic support and dietary management are often beneficial during recovery.

Ureteral Obstruction Inappetence, vomiting, lethargy, and progressive weight loss are common. Bilateral ureteral obstruction can lead to severe uremia, hyperkalemia, and life-threatening metabolic derangements. This condition is often caused by ureteroliths (commonly calcium oxalate), blood clots, strictures, neoplasia (primary or adjacent), perineal hernia, or prostatic enlargement. Cats are especially prone to ureterolith-induced obstruction.
Treatment Stabilization is essential: initiate IV fluid therapy with balanced crystalloids to address dehydration and improve renal perfusion. Treat hyperkalemia with calcium gluconate (50-100 mg/kg IV slowly), insulin with dextrose, and/or sodium bicarbonate if acidotic. Hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis may be indicated for critical cases or severe azotemia. If medical management fails, surgical intervention is required—options include ureterotomy, neoureterocystostomy, or placement of a subcutaneous ureteral bypass (SUB) device. Early intervention improves prognosis and minimizes irreversible kidney damage.

Vaginal Hyperplasia, Vaginal Prolapse, and Vaginal Edema Protruding pink to reddish mass from the vulva, marked edema of the vaginal tissue (especially ventral floor), perineal swelling, excessive licking of the perineal region, and dysuria, stranguria, or pollakiuria may be observed. This condition most commonly affects young, intact bitches during proestrus or estrus due to estrogen-induced hypertrophy and edema of the vaginal mucosa. It is rare in queens (female cats).
Treatment Prevent trauma with an Elizabethan collar and maintain cleanliness of exposed tissues using sterile saline and protective ointments. In mild cases, spontaneous regression may occur after estrus. In moderate to severe cases, temporary vulvar retention sutures (purse-string pattern) may help prevent further protrusion. Administer gonadotropin-releasing hormone (e.g., deslorelin implant or leuprolide acetate 100 µg/kg SC) to suppress estrus if recurrence is frequent. Ovariohysterectomy is the definitive treatment to prevent recurrence. Topical anti-inflammatory agents and systemic antibiotics may be indicated if secondary infection is present.

Anaplasmosis(Tick Fever, Canine Tropical Anemia )Fever, lethargy, inappetence, shifting-leg lameness due to polyarthritis, joint pain, weight loss, and pale mucous membranes are common signs. Tick infestation is frequently noted. In some cases, dyspnea and neurologic signs may occur. Anaplasmosis is caused by Anaplasma phagocytophilum or Anaplasma platys, transmitted by Ixodes ticks. Dogs are more commonly affected than cats. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs, tick exposure, cytology (morulae in neutrophils or platelets), SNAP 4Dx test, or PCR.
Treatment Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID or 10 mg/kg PO SID for 14-28 days is the treatment of choice. Clinical improvement is usually seen within 24-48 hours. Supportive care may be necessary in cases with severe anemia, thrombocytopenia, or co-infections (e.g., Ehrlichia). Monitor CBC and platelet count during and after treatment. Tick prevention is critical to prevent reinfection.

Sinus BradycardiaMarkedly reduced heart rate, exercise intolerance, weakness, lethargy, syncope, or in some cases, no clinical signs. Sinus bradycardia can be physiological (e.g., in athletic animals or during sleep) or pathological due to increased vagal tone, hypothyroidism, or secondary to medications such as tranquilizers, anesthetics, β-blockers, calcium channel blockers, and digitalis derivatives.
TreatmentAtropine sulfate 0.02-0.04 mg/kg IV or IM (test dose may help determine vagal involvement), Glycopyrrolate 0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV, IM, or SC, or Ephedrine 1 mg/kg PO BID. Chronic or refractory cases may require implantation of a pacemaker. Treat underlying cause or discontinue offending drug if possible.

Sinus Bradycardia (Secondary to Increased Intracranial Pressure)Sinus bradycardia, altered mentation, anisocoria, cranial nerve deficits, ataxia, and signs of increased intracranial pressure (e.g., Cushing's reflex: bradycardia, hypertension, and irregular respiration). Increased intracranial pressure may result from trauma, space-occupying lesions (e.g., tumors, abscesses), inflammation, or hemorrhage affecting brainstem autonomic control.
TreatmentTreat the underlying cause of intracranial pressure. Emergency measures include mannitol 0.5-1.0 g/kg IV over 15-20 minutes or hypertonic saline (3-7% NaCl) at 4-5 mL/kg IV over 10-15 minutes to reduce cerebral edema. Maintain head elevation (30 degrees), avoid jugular compression, and ensure normocapnia. For symptomatic bradycardia: Atropine sulfate 0.02-0.04 mg/kg IV or IM, or Glycopyrrolate 0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV, IM, or SC. Definitive treatment requires control of intracranial pathology via medical or surgical management.

Intracranial MyiasisMost common in summer months when adult flies (e.g., Cuterebra spp.) deposit ova. Typically affects outdoor cats (rarely dogs). Clinical signs include acute-onset seizures, behavioral changes, unilateral facial hypalgesia, nonresponsive dilated pupil, sneezing, and a menace deficit. Aberrant migration of Cuterebra larvae into the central nervous system causes inflammation and necrosis.
Treatment Administer diphenhydramine at 4 mg/kg IM to mitigate hypersensitivity. Ivermectin at 400 µg/kg SC (not mg/kg) may be used off-label with caution. Dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg IV to reduce CNS inflammation. Repeat treatment in 24 hours if neurologic signs persist. Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as a third-generation cephalosporin, trimethoprim-sulfa (15-30 mg/kg PO BID), or metronidazole (10-15 mg/kg PO BID) may be indicated to prevent secondary infections. Prognosis is guarded due to risk of progressive neurologic damage.

Pharyngitis and TonsillitisProminent clinical signs include coughing, gagging, retching, dysphagia, repeated swallowing attempts, hypersalivation, and production of white, foamy mucus (often mistaken for vomiting). Fever, head shaking, and oral discomfort are common. Pharyngeal examination reveals hyperemic, enlarged tonsils with petechiations. Unilateral tonsillar involvement may be due to foreign bodies such as grass awns, sticks, or seeds.
TreatmentEmpirical therapy includes amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5-20 mg/kg PO BID for 10-14 days or amoxicillin alone at 20-25 mg/kg PO TID. For severe inflammation, prednisolone 0.5-1 mg/kg PO SID for 3-5 days may reduce swelling. Provide analgesics such as meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID or tramadol 2-4 mg/kg PO TID. Tonsillectomy may be indicated in chronic, recurrent, or obstructive cases unresponsive to medical therapy.

Erythrocytic ParasitesProminent signs include hemolytic anemia, fever, pallor, lethargy, and weakness. Hemotrophic mycoplasmas (e.g., Mycoplasma haemofelis in cats, M. haemocanis in dogs) are epicellular erythrocyte parasites that induce immune-mediated hemolysis. Cats are more commonly affected than dogs.
Treatment Doxycycline 5-10 mg/kg PO BID for 21 days is the first-line treatment. Enrofloxacin 5-10 mg/kg PO SID may be considered as an alternative in cases unresponsive to doxycycline. In cases of severe anemia, a blood transfusion may be required. Prednisolone 1-2 mg/kg PO SID may be used in severe hemolysis to reduce immune-mediated destruction. Recovered animals may remain asymptomatic carriers, especially in cats. Regular follow-up is advised to monitor for relapse or chronic anemia.

Feline UrolithiasisProminent signs include dysuria (straining to urinate), hematuria (blood in urine), frequent urination with minimal output, penile licking, vomiting, lethargy, and severe weight loss. Feline urolithiasis commonly affects male cats due to their narrow urethra. Obstruction is often caused by mineral crystals or calculi, with struvite and calcium oxalate being the most prevalent types. Obstruction is a medical emergency requiring immediate intervention.
TreatmentUrethral catheterization under general anesthesia is the first-line approach to relieve obstruction. If unsuccessful, manual expression or retrograde urohydropulsion may be attempted. Persistent or recurrent obstructions may require surgical procedures such as perineal urethrostomy. Allopurinol 10 mg/kg PO SID may be used especially in urate stone-forming cats. Bethanechol 2.5 mg/cat PO q8h may aid in bladder contraction following obstruction. IV fluids are essential to correct dehydration, support renal function, and manage post-obstructive diuresis. Analgesics such as buprenorphine and anti-inflammatories like meloxicam help relieve discomfort. Stone analysis and dietary modification (e.g., low magnesium, urine-acidifying diets) are essential for preventing recurrence. Monitor patients closely for relapse and chronic lower urinary tract signs.

Canine UrolithiasisProminent signs include polyuria, hematuria, dysuria (straining to urinate), urinary incontinence, frequent urination of small volumes, blood-tinged urine, abdominal pain, flank biting, and urinary retention. Canine urolithiasis refers to the presence of calculi (stones) within the urinary tract, which may lead to obstruction, inflammation, or infection. Common stone types include struvite, calcium oxalate, urate, and cystine, with risk factors depending on breed, diet, and urinary pH.
TreatmentUrethral catheterization with a small-diameter catheter under general anesthesia is the initial step to relieve obstruction. If unsuccessful, retrograde urohydropulsion or manual assistance via rectal palpation may be attempted. Surgical interventions, including cystotomy or scrotal urethrostomy (in males), may be required if medical management fails or stones are recurrent. Allopurinol 10 mg/kg PO BID is used in urate stone formers (e.g., Dalmatians). Bethanechol 2.5 mg/dog PO q8h can assist with bladder contraction in cases of detrusor atony. Ephedrine 1 mg/kg PO BID may help with urethral sphincter tone. Dietary modifications based on stone type (e.g., dissolution diets for struvite) are essential for prevention. Regular follow-up with imaging and urinalysis is important to monitor for recurrence.

EsophagitisProminent signs include dysphagia, regurgitation, ptyalism, melena (black tarry feces), anorexia, weight loss, and refusal to eat despite showing interest in food. Esophagitis refers to inflammation of the esophageal lining and may result from gastroesophageal reflux, caustic medications, foreign bodies, or prolonged vomiting. Drug-induced esophagitis is commonly associated with doxycycline or clindamycin tablets in cats.
Treatment Omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO SID is recommended for acid suppression. Sucralfate 0.5-1 g PO TID may be added to coat and protect the esophageal mucosa. Metoclopramide 0.2-0.5 mg/kg PO TID can improve gastric emptying and reduce reflux. Pain management with opioids (e.g., buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV/SC q8h) may be indicated. Feeding a soft, low-fat, high-protein diet in small, frequent meals and elevating food bowls can aid recovery. Avoid oral medications that can lodge in the esophagus without a water chaser, especially in cats.

Feline BartonellosisProminent signs include fever, polyarthritis, uveitis, oral ulcers or stomatitis, urinary tract disorders, and peripheral lymphadenomegaly. Bartonellosis is a zoonotic, arthropod-borne bacterial infection caused by Bartonella spp., fastidious gram-negative organisms. Cats serve as the primary reservoir, and transmission occurs via fleas, ticks, and scratches.
Treatment Initiate strict flea and tick control measures. Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO BID for 4 weeks is the first-line treatment. Azithromycin 10 mg/kg PO SID for 5-7 days may be considered as an alternative or adjunct. Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5-25 mg/kg PO BID may be used for co-infections. Erythromycin is less commonly used due to variable efficacy. For oral lesions, apply triamcinolone acetonide 1% dental paste (e.g., GENERLOG oral) to inflamed areas. Monitor closely for clinical response; zoonotic potential requires precautions, especially for immunocompromised owners.

Fungal Skin Infection (Dermatophytosis)Prominent signs include pruritus (itching), alopecia, erythema, and circular dermal lesions with crusting or scaling. Dermatophytosis is a superficial fungal infection of keratinized tissues (skin, hair, claws), commonly caused by Microsporum canis, M. gypseum, or Trichophyton spp. It is zoonotic and more common in young or immunocompromised animals.
Treatment Griseofulvin 25 mg/kg PO BID for 6-8 weeks is effective in dogs (avoid in cats due to potential toxicity). Itraconazole 5-10 mg/kg PO SID for 21-28 days is a safer and often preferred alternative in both species. Topical therapy with enilconazole 0.2% rinse every 3-4 days for 4 applications or until lesions resolve may be used concurrently. Lime sulfur dips (1:16 dilution) twice weekly can also aid in fungal clearance. Environmental decontamination and limiting direct contact are essential to prevent reinfection and zoonotic transmission.

Pleural EffusionProminent signs include dyspnea, tachypnea, muffled heart and lung sounds, coughing, and respiratory distress or collapse. Pleural effusion is the accumulation of fluid within the pleural cavity and can be caused by congestive heart failure, neoplasia, pyothorax, chylothorax, or hypoalbuminemia. It leads to impaired lung expansion and reduced oxygen exchange.
TreatmentInitial stabilization involves thoracocentesis using a butterfly or over-the-needle catheter at the 7th-9th intercostal space to remove fluid and relieve dyspnea. Administer supplemental oxygen. Bromhexine may be used as a mucolytic adjunct at 0.5-1 mg/kg PO or IM BID. Further treatment depends on underlying etiology: antibiotics for pyothorax (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID), diuretics for cardiogenic causes (e.g., furosemide 2 mg/kg IV/IM BID), or surgical intervention for neoplasia or persistent chylothorax. Monitoring with thoracic imaging and fluid analysis is critical to guide ongoing therapy.

Opisthorchis Felineus InfectionProminent signs include peripheral edema, ascites, lethargy, and a history of raw fish consumption. Opisthorchis felineus is a liver fluke acquired from eating raw or undercooked freshwater fish. The parasite inhabits the bile ducts and may cause cholangitis, hepatomegaly, or liver dysfunction. Cats are more commonly affected than dogs.
Treatment Praziquantel 20 mg/kg PO or IM once is recommended for fluke eradication. In chronic or heavily infested cases, repeat the dose after 14 days. Supportive therapy may include hepatoprotectants such as S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) or ursodeoxycholic acid (10-15 mg/kg PO SID). Prevention includes avoiding feeding raw or undercooked freshwater fish to pets in endemic areas.

Urinary Tract ObstructionProminent signs include hematuria and acute abdominal pain. Urinary tract obstruction is a potentially life-threatening emergency commonly caused by urolithiasis, urethral plugs, or neoplasia. It leads to bladder overdistension, post-renal azotemia, and electrolyte imbalances (e.g., hyperkalemia).
Treatment Stabilize the patient with IV fluids (e.g., isotonic crystalloids) to correct azotemia and electrolyte disturbances. Decompressive cystocentesis may be necessary if immediate catheterization is not possible. Urethral catheterization under general anesthesia is the preferred method to relieve obstruction. Butylscopolamine (0.1-0.2 mg/kg IM or SC) may assist in urethral muscle relaxation. Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO or IV SID can be used for secondary urinary tract infection. Surgical intervention such as perineal urethrostomy or cystotomy may be required for recurrent obstruction or if catheterization fails. Monitor for post-obstructive diuresis and prevent recurrence with dietary modification and proper hydration.

Feline HemoplasmosisProminent signs include moderate to severe hemolytic anemia, pale mucous membranes, tachypnea, lethargy, intermittent fever, weakness, icterus, dehydration, inappetence, and weight loss. Feline Hemoplasmosis is caused by epicellular gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Mycoplasma haemofelis, M. haemominutum, and Candidatus M. turicensis) that parasitize feline erythrocytes. These organisms are transmitted by arthropods or iatrogenically and cannot survive long outside the host.
Treatment Doxycycline 5-10 mg/kg PO BID for 21 days is the first-line therapy. Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO SID for 14 days may be used in refractory cases. If marked autoagglutination is present or there is suspicion of immune-mediated hemolysis, prednisolone 1-2 mg/kg PO SID for 5-7 days may be cautiously administered. Supportive therapy includes IV crystalloids for dehydration and blood transfusions in anemic patients (PCV < 15%). Recheck hematocrit and reticulocyte counts during and after treatment. Recovered cats may remain carriers, and stress or immunosuppression may cause relapse.

Shigellosis (Cat)Most cats are asymptomatic carriers, but when clinical signs occur, they include acute or chronic diarrhea, sometimes with mucus or blood. Shigellosis is a zoonotic bacterial infection caused by Shigella spp., more common in non-domestic felids. Domestic cats are generally resistant, and clinical disease is rare but may occur in immunocompromised individuals or young kittens.
Treatment Trimethoprim-sulfonamide 15-30 mg/kg PO or IV q12h for 5-7 days is the first-line treatment. Amoxicillin 10-20 mg/kg PO or IV q8h, or Ampicillin 10-20 mg/kg IV q8h can be considered if culture and sensitivity warrant it. Tetracycline 10-25 mg/kg PO q8h may also be used, though it is less commonly preferred due to resistance. Supportive care with fluid therapy, probiotics, and high-fiber diets can aid recovery. Zoonotic precautions should be taken, particularly in multi-pet or immunocompromised households.

Arterial ThromboembolismProminent signs include sudden onset of hind limb paresis or paralysis, severe pain, cold or cyanotic extremities (nail beds and foot pads), absent femoral pulse, and muscle contracture. Arterial thromboembolism (ATE) is a life-threatening condition most often associated with underlying cardiac disease, especially hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) in cats. Thrombi typically originate in the left atrium and embolize to distal arterial sites, commonly the aortic trifurcation ("saddle thrombus").
Treatment Analgesia is critical: Buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg SC/IM/IV q8h or Hydromorphone 0.05-0.1 mg/kg IM/IV q6-8h. Sedation with low-dose Acepromazine (0.01-0.05 mg/kg IM/SC) may help reduce anxiety. Antithrombotic therapy includes Clopidogrel 18.75 mg PO SID in cats, or 1-4 mg/kg PO SID in dogs. Low molecular weight heparin (e.g., Enoxaparin 1 mg/kg SC q12h) or unfractionated heparin 75-100 U/kg SC q8h may be used. Aspirin 5-10 mg/kg PO q48-72h may be considered in chronic prevention. Prognosis is guarded. Recovery depends on the degree of ischemia and reperfusion injury. Prompt and aggressive supportive care, including physical therapy and cardiovascular management, improves outcomes. Recurrent embolism is common without long-term anticoagulation.

Peripheral Vestibular SyndromeProminent signs include sudden onset of head tilt, asymmetrical ataxia, horizontal or rotatory nystagmus, and disorientation. In some cases, more severe signs such as falling, rolling, and vomiting (particularly in dogs) may be observed. Peripheral Vestibular Syndrome is an acute disorder affecting the vestibular portion of the cranial nerve VIII or inner ear structures. It is idiopathic in most feline cases (commonly seen in summer), and can also be caused by otitis media/interna, ototoxic drugs, or trauma. It typically affects older dogs and cats of all ages.
Treatment Supportive care includes anti-nausea therapy such as Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC/PO SID or Metoclopramide 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO/IV TID. Ensure hydration with IV fluids if the animal is unable to drink. Treat underlying causes if identified (e.g., otitis: Clindamycin 5.5 mg/kg PO BID or enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO SID if inner ear infection suspected). Spontaneous improvement is usually seen within 72 hours, with most animals recovering fully over 2-4 weeks, though a mild residual head tilt may persist. Prognosis is excellent in idiopathic cases.

Canine MicrosporidiosisProminent signs in neonatal puppies (typically under 6 weeks) include ataxia, seizures, blindness, and abnormal behavioral changes such as aggression or disorientation. Canine Microsporidiosis is a rare but emerging zoonotic disease caused by obligate intracellular fungal-like organisms of the phylum Microsporidia. It primarily affects immunocompromised animals and is more commonly reported in young or neonatal dogs. Transmission may occur via ingestion of spores from contaminated environments or vertical transmission.
TreatmentAlbendazole 25 mg/kg PO SID for 10–14 days is considered the first-line therapy for microsporidiosis, though it may cause bone marrow suppression with prolonged use. Alternatively, Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 5–10 days has shown some efficacy in mild to moderate cases. Fluconazole is generally ineffective against Microsporidia. Supportive care, including fluids, anticonvulsants such as Levetiracetam 20 mg/kg PO TID, and nutritional support, should be provided as needed. Zoonotic precautions are advised, especially in households with immunocompromised individuals.

Rabies Virus InfectionKey signs progress through three clinical stages:
Prodromal stage - behavioral changes such as nervousness, anxiety, and apprehension;
Furious stage - hyperexcitability, aggression, excessive salivation with dysphagia, incoordination, and seizures;
Dumb (paralytic) stage - progressive paralysis, coma, and ultimately respiratory arrest. Rabies is caused by a single-stranded RNA virus from the family Rhabdoviridae. It is a zoonotic, invariably fatal viral encephalitis affecting all mammals, including humans. Transmission primarily occurs via the bite of an infected animal, with the virus traveling via peripheral nerves to the CNS.
Treatment There is no effective treatment once clinical signs appear, and the disease is considered universally fatal. Suspected animals should be isolated and euthanized in accordance with local public health regulations to prevent zoonotic transmission. Post-exposure prophylaxis with rabies vaccine and rabies immunoglobulin is effective in humans prior to the onset of symptoms. Prevention through vaccination is critical: administer an initial dose of an approved killed rabies vaccine at 12–16 weeks of age, followed by a booster at one year, then every 1–3 years depending on vaccine type and local laws.

Acetaminophen Poisoning (Paracetamol Poisoning)Prominent signs include anorexia, vomiting, lethargy, weakness, and in severe cases, facial edema or paw edema, cyanosis, dyspnea, hypothermia, hematuria, and icterus (especially in cats). Cats are particularly sensitive to acetaminophen toxicity due to deficient glucuronyl transferase activity, leading to oxidative damage to red blood cells and hepatocytes. Dogs are less sensitive but still at risk with high or repeated doses.
Treatment Administer N-acetylcysteine (NAC) at 140 mg/kg PO or IV loading dose, followed by 70 mg/kg q6h for 7 additional treatments (total 8 doses). Supportive care includes IV fluids, oxygen supplementation, and monitoring for liver injury. In cats, methionine can be given at 50-100 mg/kg PO q6-12h for up to 3 days if NAC is unavailable. Activated charcoal may be administered within 1-2 hours of ingestion to limit absorption. Monitor methemoglobinemia and liver enzyme levels. Prognosis depends on dose, species, and time to treatment.

Cardiovascular CollapseProminent signs include tachyarrhythmias, hypotension, weak pulses, pale mucous membranes, cold extremities, and collapse. Cardiovascular collapse is a critical emergency that can result from various causes including arrhythmias, shock, severe cardiac disease, or drug reactions. Immediate stabilization is essential to prevent death.
TreatmentIf tachyarrhythmia is confirmed as the cause, administer Atenolol at 0.5-1 mg/kg PO BID for rate control in stable patients. For acute stabilization, propranolol (0.02-0.06 mg/kg IV slowly) or esmolol (0.025-0.5 mg/kg/min CRI(Constant Rate Infusion) may be used. Lidocaine (1-2 mg/kg IV bolus followed by CRI(Constant Rate Infusion) at 25-75 µg/kg/min) may be indicated for ventricular arrhythmias in dogs. Fluid resuscitation with isotonic crystalloids (10-20 mL/kg IV bolus over 15-20 min) may be necessary in hypovolemic or distributive shock, except in cases of cardiogenic shock where fluid must be used cautiously. Monitor ECG, blood pressure, and perfusion parameters closely. Address the underlying cause of collapse concurrently.

Oropharyngeal Dysphagia DisordersDysphagia, excessive drooling, dropping food from the mouth, repeated swallowing attempts of the same bolus, nasal discharge, gagging, and coughing during eating are typical signs. Water may be swallowed more easily than food, though a postswallowing cough may follow. Oropharyngeal dysphagia refers to dysfunction in the oral or pharyngeal phase of swallowing, often due to neuromuscular disorders, anatomical abnormalities, or inflammatory disease affecting the pharynx, larynx, or cranial nerves.
TreatmentNutritional support using pharyngoesophageal or feeding tubes is often necessary in severe cases. Surgical intervention, such as cricopharyngeal myotomy, may be beneficial in select cases (e.g., cricopharyngeal achalasia). Aminophylline 5-8 mg/kg PO TID may be considered to enhance smooth muscle relaxation. Terbutaline 0.2-0.3 mg/kg PO BID in dogs or 0.01-0.02 mg/kg PO BID in cats can aid laryngeal function. Albuterol (Salbutamol) is generally used via inhalation rather than orally; for bronchospasm relief, administer 100 µg per actuation via inhaler with a spacer. Management also includes treating underlying neuromuscular disease, aspiration pneumonia, and ensuring proper hydration and caloric intake.

ObesityPanting, heat intolerance (hyperthermia), abdominal distension, and visible or palpable fat accumulation in the abdominal region are common clinical signs. Obesity is defined as an excessive accumulation of adipose tissue, typically exceeding 15-20% of ideal body weight. It is a risk factor for various conditions, including orthopedic disease, diabetes mellitus, hepatic lipidosis, and respiratory compromise, particularly in brachycephalic breeds.
Treatment Weight reduction should be gradual and supervised. A prescription veterinary weight-loss diet with high protein and fiber content is essential. Dirlotapide (Slentrol®) is approved for dogs at an initial dose of 0.01 mL/kg PO SID; adjust dose based on response and tolerability. Dantrolene is not a standard treatment for obesity and is generally reserved for malignant hyperthermia or muscle disorders; it is not recommended here. Instead, implement controlled caloric intake, increase physical activity (as tolerated), and monitor weight loss (targeting 1-2% body weight loss per week). Client education and long-term management are key to preventing relapse. Pharmacological agents should be used with caution and only under veterinary supervision.

Primary HypoparathyroidismFacial rubbing, ptyalism (drooling), dysphagia, prolapse of the third eyelid, cataracts, hypothermia, and muscle tremors or twitching are prominent. Primary hypoparathyroidism is a rare endocrine disorder in cats caused by insufficient secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH), often due to lymphocytic parathyroiditis or immune-mediated destruction. This leads to hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia. Females may be more predisposed.
TreatmentAdminister 10% calcium gluconate at 0.5-1.5 mL/kg IV slowly (not to exceed 0.5 mL/kg/min) under ECG monitoring in acute cases. Follow with oral calcium carbonate at 25-50 mg/kg/day PO in divided doses. Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol) is preferred over DHT due to faster onset and shorter half-life; dose at 10-20 ng/kg/day PO initially, then titrate to effect. Vitamin D2 or D3 supplementation may be considered in stable patients (100-200 IU/kg/day PO), but Calcitriol remains the mainstay. Regular monitoring of serum calcium and phosphorus is essential to avoid hypercalcemia and ensure appropriate dosing adjustments.

Cataract Most prominent symptoms in dogs and cats include lens cloudiness, reduced vision, difficulty navigating, reluctance to jump or move in dim light, and bumping into objects. Cataracts can be inherited, age-related, or secondary to diabetes, uveitis, or trauma.
Cataract is an opacity of the lens that impairs light transmission and visual clarity. In dogs, hereditary and diabetic cataracts are common, while in cats, cataracts are more often secondary to uveitis or trauma. Advanced cataracts may lead to lens-induced uveitis or glaucoma if left untreated.
Treatment - Medical Management (early or non-surgical cases):
- Pirenoxine Eye Drops: 0.005% solution, 1–2 drops per affected eye BID. May help slow cataract progression by inhibiting lens protein aggregation and oxidative damage. Evidence in veterinary patients is limited and anecdotal.
- Antioxidants:
- Vitamin E: 10 IU/kg PO SID.
- Vitamin C: 10–20 mg/kg PO SID (use with caution in cats due to lower tolerance).
- Surgical Management (for mature or vision-threatening cataracts):
- Phacoemulsification: The standard procedure performed by a veterinary ophthalmologist under general anesthesia. Offers the best visual recovery if retina is functional and ocular inflammation is controlled.
Pirenoxine may offer limited benefit in very early-stage cataracts but is not a substitute for surgery. Regular ophthalmic rechecks and monitoring for complications like uveitis or glaucoma are essential.

White Shaker SyndromeRapid whole-body tremors (shaking), ataxia, anxiety, and hyperthermia are the most prominent symptoms, typically seen in small breed dogs, especially West Highland White Terriers, between 1 to 3 years of age. White Shaker Syndrome is an idiopathic inflammatory disorder affecting the central nervous system, causing diffuse tremors without loss of consciousness. The exact cause is unknown but is suspected to be immune-mediated.
TreatmentImmunosuppressive corticosteroids such as prednisone at 0.5-1 mg/kg PO twice daily initially, gradually tapered over weeks to months based on clinical response. Diazepam 0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO or IV may be used as an adjunct to control tremors. Supportive care and environmental calming measures are important. Most dogs respond well to treatment with resolution of symptoms within days to weeks. Relapses can occur and may require long-term therapy.Regular neurological evaluation is recommended to monitor progress and adjust treatment.

Visceral Smooth Muscle Spasm (e.g., Colic, Urolithiasis, Biliary Spasm) Prominent symptoms include abdominal pain and cramping, urinary discomfort, biliary colic, and smooth muscle spasms related to nephrolithiasis or ureterolithiasis. These signs are often associated with conditions such as urinary calculi, gastrointestinal hypermotility, or hepatobiliary inflammation. In animals, these spasms may present as restlessness, vocalization, straining to urinate or defecate, or tense abdomen on palpation.
TreatmentDrotaverine hydrochloride 2-4 mg/kg PO TID can be used as a smooth muscle relaxant for symptomatic relief in dogs. For cats, the use of drotaverine is less documented and should be used cautiously under veterinary guidance. Supportive care, IV fluids (especially in urinary tract involvement), and pain control (e.g., butorphanol or buprenorphine) are important adjuncts. Addressing the underlying cause (e.g., removing calculi, treating infections) is essential for long-term resolution.

Colonic Obstruction (Secondary to Prostatic or Paraprostatic Cyst)The most prominent symptom is chronic or recurrent constipation, often accompanied by tenesmus, abdominal straining, reduced appetite, and lethargy. Colonic obstruction in male dogs can occur due to an enlarged prostate or paraprostatic cysts compressing the colon, leading to mechanical blockage and reduced motility.
TreatmentInitial management includes stool softening and promoting colonic motility. Docusate sodium 5-10 mg/kg PO BID, or a 5% solution (5-10 ml per 100 ml warm water) can be administered rectally. Bisacodyl 0.05-0.1 mg/kg PO SID to BID may be used occasionally. Lactulose 0.5-1 ml/kg PO BID can also aid in softening stool.If constipation is severe, warm water or saline enemas (10–20 mL/kg) may be used under veterinary supervision. Addressing the underlying prostatic or cystic cause is critical—this may involve surgical removal, castration, or aspiration. Loperamide is not recommended for obstructive causes of constipation, as it can worsen the condition by reducing motility.

Colonic Obstruction (Intraluminal Foreign Body)Prominent symptoms include persistent constipation, abdominal discomfort, anorexia, vomiting, and tenesmus. The animal may strain without defecating, show signs of abdominal pain, or have a visibly distended abdomen. This condition occurs due to the physical blockage of the colon by an ingested foreign object. Without intervention, it can lead to serious complications like megacolon or colonic rupture.
TreatmentDocusate sodium 5-10 mg/kg PO BID or as a 5% solution (5-10 mL mixed with 100 mL warm water) administered rectally may help soften stool and ease passage. Lactulose 0.5-1 mL/kg PO BID can act as an osmotic laxative to promote bowel movement. Bisacodyl 0.05-0.1 mg/kg PO SID-BID may be used cautiously if no perforation is suspected.Loperamide is contraindicated in mechanical obstruction and should be avoided. If the obstruction persists or the patient deteriorates, endoscopic or surgical removal of the foreign body is necessary. Supportive care including IV fluids, analgesics (such as buprenorphine), and careful monitoring are critical to recovery.

Colonic Obstruction due to Extraluminal Tumor Prominent symptoms include persistent constipation, tenesmus, abdominal discomfort, decreased appetite, and lethargy. In cases involving extraluminal tumors, compression of the colon leads to reduced fecal passage, often presenting as infrequent or painful defecation and possibly ribbon-like stool.
Treatment Initial management includes stool softeners and promotility agents for temporary relief: Docusate sodium 50-100 mg PO BID (dogs), or 10 mL of 5% solution mixed with 100 mL warm water as enema Bisacodyl (Dalax) 0.12 mg/kg PO PRN (avoid chronic use) Lactulose 0.5 mL/kg PO BID may also be used to soften stool. Loperamide is not recommended in obstructive constipation, as it may worsen colonic motility issues.
Definitive treatment requires surgical excision of the extraluminal mass if operable. Advanced imaging (ultrasound or CT) should be used to determine tumor origin and resectability. Oncology consultation is advised for biopsy and staging.
Supportive care, hydration (oral or IV fluids), and nutritional support (e.g., fiber-modified diet) are essential for recovery and management of chronic cases.

Colonic Obstruction (Congenital Stricture - Intraluminal)Prominent symptoms include chronic constipation, straining to defecate (tenesmus), decreased or absent fecal output, abdominal discomfort, and sometimes vomiting or inappetence. Congenital colonic strictures are rare but can cause persistent intraluminal obstruction. Affected animals may develop megacolon if untreated, especially in cats.
Treatment Docusate sodium 5-10 mg/kg PO BID or as a 5% solution (5-10 mL in 100 mL warm water per rectum) helps soften feces. Lactulose 0.5-1 mL/kg PO BID can aid stool passage by osmotic action. Bisacodyl 0.05-0.1 mg/kg PO may be used cautiously as a stimulant laxative (avoid in severe cases or with suspected perforation).Loperamide is contraindicated in mechanical obstruction and should be avoided.If medical management fails or the stricture is severe, surgical correction (coloplasty or resection and anastomosis) may be necessary.Supportive care including IV fluids, analgesia (e.g., buprenorphine), and careful monitoring is essential. Early intervention improves prognosis and prevents chronic colonic dilation or rupture.

Constipation due to Colonic Obstruction (e.g., Perineal Hernia, Rectal Canal Deviation)Prominent symptoms include tenesmus, straining to defecate, firm or painful abdomen, decreased or absent fecal output, and visible perineal swelling. Constipation may result from extraluminal compression, deviation of the rectal canal due to a perineal hernia, or weakened pelvic diaphragm muscles. Chronic cases may lead to megacolon and systemic illness.
Treatment Loperamide (Decotil): 0.2 mg/kg PO BID (short-term use only). Bisacodyl (Dalax): 0.12 mg/kg PO as needed (prn), use cautiously to avoid cramping. Docusate sodium: 50-100 mg PO BID, or 10 mL of 5% solution diluted with 100 mL warm water per rectum.Surgical correction of the perineal hernia is often required for definitive resolution. Supportive therapy may include enemas, stool softeners, high-fiber diets, and fluid therapy to address dehydration and soften stool. Monitor for recurrence or megacolon in chronic cases.

Feline Alimentary Lymphosarcoma Prominent symptoms include chronic anorexia, persistent vomiting, diarrhea (often malodorous or with blood), progressive weight loss, and lethargy. This is the most common form of gastrointestinal lymphoma in cats and typically affects older, FeLV-negative cats, although it may occur in FeLV-positive younger cats as well. It can be localized (e.g., small intestine, colon) or diffuse, and is often mistaken for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).
TreatmentCHOP-based chemotherapy protocol is considered the gold standard: Cyclophosphamide 200-250 mg/m² IV q3 weeks. Doxorubicin 20-25 mg/m² IV q3 weeks. Vincristine 0.5-0.75 mg/m² IV weekly (max 0.5 mg in cats) Prednisolone 2 mg/kg PO SID for 7 days, then taper to 1 mg/kg PO SID.Single-agent protocols (e.g., chlorambucil and prednisolone) may be used for small-cell lymphoma. Cisplatin is contraindicated in cats due to fatal pulmonary edema risk. Carboplatin may be considered in dogs or other tumor types, but is not typically used in feline lymphoma.Supportive therapy includes antiemetics (e.g., maropitant), appetite stimulants (e.g., mirtazapine), and nutritional support. Response to treatment and prognosis depends on lymphoma subtype (high- vs. low-grade) and FeLV status.

Canine Influenza (Dog Flu)Prominent symptoms include acute onset of coughing (soft, moist, or dry), sneezing, high fever (up to 106°F), dyspnea, lethargy, and mucopurulent nasal and ocular discharge. Some cases may progress to bronchopneumonia, particularly in immunocompromised or very young/old dogs. It is highly contagious and caused primarily by canine influenza virus H3N8 or H3N2 strains.
TreatmentSupportive and symptomatic care includes: Bromhexine 0.5-1 mg/kg PO BID (mucolytic and expectorant). Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID or amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5-25 mg/kg PO BID to prevent or treat secondary bacterial infections. NSAIDs (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID) to control fever and inflammation IV fluids to correct dehydration in severe cases. Hospitalization in cases of severe pneumonia or hypoxia. Isolation of infected animals and proper hygiene measures are essential to prevent spread. A canine influenza vaccine is available and recommended for high-risk populations (e.g., kennels, shelters, dog shows).

Feline Perinephric Pseudocysts Prominent symptoms include abdominal enlargement, detection of a palpable abdominal mass, signs of chronic kidney disease such as uremia, and sometimes lethargy or anorexia. These fluid accumulations around the kidney are typically seen in older cats (usually over 11 years), and may be unilateral or bilateral. They are not true cysts as they lack epithelial lining and arise from fluid accumulation between the renal capsule and surrounding tissues.
Treatment Ultrasound-guided drainage can provide temporary relief of discomfort or reduce abdominal distension but does not improve renal function. Definitive management includes laparoscopic or open surgical fenestration or excision of the fibrous pseudocyst capsule while preserving the kidney. Nephrectomy is avoided unless the affected kidney is nonfunctional or neoplastic. Supportive treatment for concurrent chronic kidney disease includes:
(1) - Subcutaneous fluids (e.g., 100–150 mL every 24–48 hours based on hydration status).
(2) -- Phosphate binders (e.g., aluminum hydroxide 30–60 mg/kg/day PO divided).
(3) -- Renal diets.
(4) -- Monitoring of serum creatinine, BUN, and electrolytes is essential for long-term management.

Enteric Coccidiosis in Dogs and Cats Prominent symptoms include watery to mucoid or bloody diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, weight loss, and dehydration. This disease is caused by protozoan parasites (Dogs: Isospora canis, I. ohioensis, I. burrowsi; Cats: I. felis, I. rivolta). It typically affects puppies and kittens under 6 months of age. Subclinical infections are common in adults, but clinical disease occurs under stress or immunosuppression.
Treatment Sulfadimethoxine: 50 mg/kg PO SID for 10-14 days. Trimethoprim-sulfonamide: 15-30 mg/kg PO BID for 5-7 days Amprolium: 100 mg/kg PO SID for 5 days (monitor for thiamine deficiency if prolonged). Supportive care includes fluid therapy, nutritional support, and electrolyte correction.Butylscopolamine (Spanil): 0.1 mL/kg IM BID may help relieve abdominal cramping. Nitrofurazone: Use is no longer routinely recommended due to safety concerns and limited efficacy in coccidiosis. If used, do not exceed 10 mg/kg PO SID and reduce dose by 50% if combined with sulfonamides. Consider safer alternatives where available.

Feline Immunodeficiency Virus infection (FIV)Prominent symptoms include fever, lymphadenopathy, neutropenia, gingivitis, stomatitis, chronic or intermittent diarrhea, anorexia, and progressive weight loss. FIV is a lentivirus from the Retroviridae family, similar to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and leads to chronic immunosuppression. Cats may remain asymptomatic for years before progressing to clinical illness. Opportunistic infections are common in advanced stages.
Treatment There is no definitive cure for FIV. Management is supportive and focused on secondary infections and immune modulation.
Zidovudine (AZT): 5 mg/kg PO BID (monitor for anemia)
Broad-spectrum antibiotics: for secondary infections (e.g., doxycycline, amoxicillin-clavulanate)
Human Interferon-α: 30 IU PO SID on alternating weeks (immunomodulatory effect)
Additional supportive care includes maintaining good oral hygiene, dental care, fluid therapy, nutritional support, and minimizing stress. Regular monitoring of blood counts and secondary disease progression is recommended.

Chagas Disease (Trypanosoma cruzi)Prominent symptoms include cardiac arrhythmias, regional or generalized lymphadenopathy, vomiting, diarrhea, and progressive constipation in chronic phases. Caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, this disease can manifest in acute or chronic stages. In the chronic phase, myocardial damage may lead to cardiomyopathy, megacolon, or megaesophagus, especially in dogs.
Treatment Benznidazole: 5–7 mg/kg PO BID for 60 days (mainstay antitrypanosomal agent; use under veterinary supervision)
Allopurinol: 10 mg/kg PO BID (used as a trypanostatic adjunct, particularly in chronic cases)
Amiodarone: 10–12 mg/kg PO BID (antiarrhythmic support in chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy)
Atenolol: 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID (beta-blocker to manage arrhythmias)
Butylscopolamine (Spanil): 0.3–0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID for GI cramping and colonic motility relief
Bisacodyl (Dalax): 0.12 mg/kg PO as needed for constipation
Supportive care includes IV fluids, electrolyte correction, cardiac monitoring, and management of heart failure if present. Environmental control is essential: vector control (Triatomine bugs), strict disinfection using 10% bleach or 70% ethanol, and screening of blood donors are critical preventive measures.

Idiopathic Facial Nerve Paralysis Prominent symptoms include unilateral or bilateral facial drooping, lip paralysis, deviation of the nose away from the affected side, drooling (sialosis), and accumulation of food on the paralyzed side of the mouth. Animals may have reduced blink reflex or inability to close the eyelids, increasing the risk of corneal exposure and ulceration. In some cases, signs may mimic other neuromuscular or inner ear disorders and should be differentiated accordingly.
Treatment Ophthalmic lubricants (e.g., artificial tears or ointments such as hypromellose 1%-2%): Apply 3-4 times daily to prevent corneal drying and ulceration
Prednisolone: 0.5-1 mg/kg PO SID for 5-7 days (used with caution; may reduce inflammation if early and immune-mediated)
Gabapentin: 5-10 mg/kg PO BID-TID (if facial nerve involvement results in neuropathic discomfort)
Supportive care: Maintain oral hygiene and assist with feeding if needed
There is no definitive cure. Most cases are idiopathic and prognosis is guarded. Chronic lip paralysis may lead to permanent muscle contracture, and inability to close the eyelids can result in keratitis. Neurologic follow-up is advised to monitor for progression or resolution.

Pelvic Nerve DamageProminent symptoms include chronic constipation, tenesmus, reduced or absent defecation reflex, and distended colon on palpation. Damage to the pelvic nerve may occur due to pelvic fractures, spinal trauma, or surgical injury, leading to loss of parasympathetic innervation of the colon and rectum. Affected animals often strain without successful defecation and may develop megacolon if untreated.
Treatment Docusate sodium: 50-100 mg/dog PO BID or 10 ml of 5% solution mixed with 100 ml warm water per rectum
Lactulose: 0.5-1 ml/kg PO BID-TID (to soften stool and promote motility)
Cisapride: 0.2-0.5 mg/kg PO TID (prokinetic; essential in neurogenic constipation, especially in cats)
Enemas (warm water, mineral oil, or lactulose-based): Used when defecation is absent for >48 hours
Manual evacuation under sedation or anesthesia in severe cases
Loperamide and bisacodyl are generally avoided long-term in neurogenic constipation as they may worsen colonic motility dysfunction. Address underlying nerve injury if possible; long-term management may require dietary changes (e.g., high-fiber or low-residue diets) and regular monitoring.

Feline CoccidioidomycosisProminent symptoms include persistent fever, weight loss, draining skin lesions, anterior uveitis, corneal opacity, wheezing, weakness or paralysis of the hindlimbs, and enlarged lymph nodes. This systemic fungal infection, caused by Coccidioides immitis or C. posadasii, is less common in cats than in dogs but can lead to disseminated disease affecting lungs, eyes, bones, and skin. Skin lesions are more common in cats than dogs.
Treatment Itraconazole: 10 mg/kg PO SID (preferred first-line; duration 6-12 months or longer)
Fluconazole: 10 mg/kg PO SID (better CNS and ocular penetration; good for disseminated or ocular cases)
Voriconazole: 4-6 mg/kg PO BID (use with caution; limited data in cats; monitor for neurotoxicity)
Ketoconazole: 10 mg/kg PO BID (less preferred due to hepatotoxicity and lower efficacy)
Amphotericin B (liposomal): 0.5-1 mg/kg IV q48-72h; cumulative dose up to 10-12 mg/kg (used in severe or refractory cases)
Nikkomycin Z: 50 mg/kg PO SID (experimental, used as adjunct therapy)
Terbinafine: 20-30 mg/kg PO SID (used as adjunct to azoles in resistant or chronic cases)
Caspofungin, micafungin, anidulafungin: reserved for salvage therapy in refractory cases; IV use only and rarely used in cats
Prednisolone: 0.5 mg/kg PO SID short-term for severe ocular or CNS inflammation (use cautiously; may worsen infection if not controlled by antifungals)
Surgical excision: indicated for isolated granulomatous masses or abscesses that do not resolve with antifungal therapy
Therapy may be required for 6-12 months or longer. Monitoring liver enzymes, clinical response, and follow-up imaging (e.g., chest radiographs, ocular ultrasound) are essential to guide treatment duration.

Canine CoccidioidomycosisProminent symptoms include persistent fever, weight loss, enlarged lymph nodes, lameness, non-healing skin ulcers, draining abscesses, uveitis, acute blindness, and neurologic signs such as seizures or behavioral changes. This systemic fungal infection, caused by Coccidioides immitis or C. posadasii, is endemic in arid and semi-arid regions. Disseminated disease may affect the bones, eyes, skin, and central nervous system.
Treatment Itraconazole: 5-10 mg/kg PO BID for at least 6-12 months (preferred first-line)
Fluconazole: 5-10 mg/kg PO BID (better CNS penetration)
Voriconazole: 4-6 mg/kg PO BID (used in refractory or CNS cases)
Ketoconazole: 8-10 mg/kg PO BID (less commonly used due to hepatotoxicity)
Amphotericin B: 0.25-0.5 mg/kg IV q48h, cumulative dose not to exceed 8-12 mg/kg
Nikkomycin Z: 50 mg/kg PO SID (experimental, adjunctive use)
Caspofungin, micafungin, anidulafungin: used off-label and typically in advanced or refractory cases
Terbinafine: 20-30 mg/kg PO SID (adjunct to azoles)
Prednisolone: 0.5-1 mg/kg PO SID for severe inflammation, especially in ocular or CNS involvement (use cautiously and taper)
Surgical excision: indicated for isolated granulomas or abscesses causing structural compromise
Regular monitoring of liver enzymes and clinical response is essential. Long-term therapy is often needed, sometimes lifelong for disseminated disease. Relapse is common if treatment is stopped prematurely.

Parasitic GastritisIntermittent vomiting is the most common clinical sign, along with dark feces (melena), variable anorexia, anemia, weight loss, and presence of worms in vomitus, especially in puppies. Parasitic gastritis is caused by stomach-dwelling parasites such as Physaloptera spp. in dogs and Ollulanus tricuspis in cats. These parasites attach to the gastric mucosa, causing inflammation, erosion, and bleeding. Infection occurs through ingestion of intermediate hosts like beetles, crickets, or cockroaches.
TreatmentFenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 5 days. Pyrantel pamoate 5-10 mg/kg PO, two doses given 2-3 weeks apart. Ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg PO or SC, repeated once after 2 weeks (avoid in ivermectin-sensitive breeds). Metoclopramide 0.2-0.5 mg/kg PO or SC q8h and Domperidone 0.5-1.0 mg/kg PO q8-12h as adjunct prokinetics. In cats with Ollulanus, topical emodepside/praziquantel can be used. Supportive care includes hydration, bland diet, and follow-up fecal exams to ensure resolution.

Chronic Idiopathic Colitis / Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)Prolonged large bowel diarrhea is the hallmark sign. Affects primarily middle-aged dogs and cats. Other symptoms include tenesmus, hematochezia, flatulence, and mucus in feces. In more severe cases or if the upper GI tract is involved, anorexia, vomiting, dehydration, and weight loss may occur. In dogs and cats, the most common form is lymphocytic-plasmacytic colitis. Less commonly, eosinophilic or histiocytic ulcerative colitis (notably in boxers and French bulldogs) may be present. These are chronic immune-mediated inflammatory disorders with multifactorial etiology including genetic, dietary, microbial, and immune factors.
TreatmentEmpiric deworming with fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 5 days is recommended to rule out parasitic causes (e.g., Trichuris vulpis). Initiate a novel protein or hydrolyzed protein diet trial for 8-12 weeks. Sulfasalazine 10-20 mg/kg PO TID for 3-4 weeks (use with caution in cats). Metronidazole 10-15 mg/kg PO BID for 2-4 weeks. Tylosin 20 mg/kg PO BID mixed in food may be beneficial, especially in tylosin-responsive diarrhea. Prednisone (dogs) 1-2 mg/kg/day PO, tapering after 2-4 weeks; prednisolone (cats) 2-4 mg/kg/day PO initially. Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only, for refractory cases), avoid in cats due to toxicity. Enrofloxacin 5-10 mg/kg PO SID may be used in Boxers with histiocytic colitis. Adjunct therapy includes probiotic supplementation (SID) and cobalamin (vitamin B12) injections if hypocobalaminemia is present. Response to therapy should be monitored with clinical scoring, fecal exams, and follow-up colonoscopy or biopsy if needed.

Feline Lungworm infestation (Aelurostrongylus abstrusus)Cough, dyspnea, tachypnea, rapid shallow breathing, open-mouth breathing, and neck extension during inhalation are hallmark signs. Aelurostrongylus abstrusus is a nematode that infects the terminal bronchioles and alveoli of cats, causing varying degrees of respiratory distress. Cats become infected by ingesting intermediate (snails, slugs) or paratenic hosts (birds, rodents). Kittens and immunocompromised cats are at higher risk of severe disease.
TreatmentFenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 10-14 days is the preferred treatment. Alternatively, Emodepside (0.14 ml/kg spot-on once) or Moxidectin (0.1 mg/kg topical or SC, single dose) are effective options. Ivermectin may be used at 0.2-0.4 mg/kg SC or PO once weekly for 2-3 weeks. Supportive care such as bronchodilators (e.g., theophylline 5-10 mg/kg PO BID) or corticosteroids may be used in moderate to severe respiratory distress, under veterinary supervision. Thoracic radiographs and fecal Baermann test are recommended for diagnosis and treatment monitoring.

Canine Lungworm infestation(Capillariasis).Coughing, dyspnea, tachypnea, head and neck extension, open-mouth breathing, and rapid shallow respirations are the most prominent respiratory signs. Eucoleus aerophilus (formerly Capillaria aerophila) is a nematode that infects the trachea and bronchi of dogs and occasionally cats. Heavy infestations can result in severe respiratory distress and secondary infections.
TreatmentFenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO once daily for 10-14 days is the treatment of choice. Alternatively, ivermectin 0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO or SC once can be effective (off-label use; not recommended in ivermectin-sensitive breeds such as Collies). Levamisole 5-10 mg/kg PO once daily for 3 days may be considered in refractory cases. Albendazole is not commonly used due to potential bone marrow suppression. Environmental hygiene and control of intermediate hosts (e.g., earthworms) are also critical in preventing reinfection.

Dermatomyositis (Dogs)Alopecia, erythema, ulcers, and scaling especially over the muzzle, lips, periocular areas, pinnae, tail tip, and distal limbs. Difficulty swallowing, regurgitation, stiff gait, reluctance to walk, and elevated creatine kinase (CK) levels may be observed. Typically affects dogs under 6 months of age, especially Collies and Shetland Sheepdogs. Dermatomyositis is an inherited, immune-mediated inflammatory disease affecting the skin, muscles, and blood vessels. Severity varies from mild cutaneous signs to severe muscular involvement with systemic effects.
TreatmentMinimize sun exposure using physical barriers and broad-spectrum topical sunscreens. Pentoxifylline 20-25 mg/kg PO BID is used for its immunomodulatory and vascular effects. Vitamin E at 400-800 IU PO BID-TID can aid skin repair. Prednisone 1-2 mg/kg PO SID initially, tapering based on response, may be needed for moderate to severe muscular involvement. Topical tacrolimus may be used in resistant cutaneous lesions. Supportive care, dietary omega-3 fatty acids, and physical therapy can improve quality of life in chronic cases.

Endocrine and Nutritional Causes of Poor Hair CoatPoor hair coat quality, dullness, thinning, altered color or texture. Alopecia may also be present. These signs are commonly due to underlying hormonal imbalances (especially hypothyroidism), nutritional deficiencies (notably vitamin A, E, or zinc), or chronic ectoparasite infestations. In dogs and cats, the most common endocrine cause is hypothyroidism in dogs and hyperthyroidism in cats. Nutritional and parasitic causes must be concurrently evaluated and addressed.
TreatmentLevothyroxine (T4) 0.02 mg/kg PO BID (dogs) or 0.1 mg/m² PO BID (cats if hypothyroid, though rare). Administer on an empty stomach for optimal absorption. Supplement with balanced multivitamins containing Vitamin A, E, biotin, and zinc as per veterinary formulation. Implement a high-quality, balanced diet. Control parasites with appropriate agents such as isoxazolines (e.g., fluralaner) for ectoparasites and fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO daily for 3 days for common helminths. Re-evaluate thyroid levels 4-6 weeks after starting therapy to ensure appropriate dosage and adjust as needed.

Feline ProtothecosisFirm, nonulcerated cutaneous or subcutaneous nodules typically located on the forehead, distal limbs, base of the tail, nose, pinnae, or genital regions. Lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph nodes) is commonly noted. Feline protothecosis is a rare, opportunistic algal infection caused by Prototheca spp., primarily Prototheca wickerhamii and Prototheca zopfii. These achlorophyllic algae invade through wounds or mucosal surfaces and can disseminate in immunocompromised animals.
TreatmentSystemic antifungal therapy is often required. Posaconazole is preferred: 5–10 mg/kg PO once daily. Amphotericin B (0.25 mg/kg IV every 24-48h, cumulative dose not to exceed 12 mg/kg) may be used in resistant cases, with close monitoring for nephrotoxicity. Voriconazole 4–6 mg/kg PO twice daily or itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO once daily are alternatives. Nystatin (topical only) is ineffective systemically. Surgical excision may be considered for solitary lesions. Prognosis is guarded, and long-term therapy is often required. Regular monitoring of liver and kidney function is essential during systemic antifungal treatment.

Pulmonary ThromboembolismSudden onset respiratory distress, tachypnea, coughing, hemoptysis, jugular vein distension and pulsation, signs of right-sided heart failure (e.g., hepatomegaly, ascites), pleural or abdominal effusion, and crackles or increased bronchial sounds on auscultation. Lung sounds may also be normal. Pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) is caused by obstruction of the pulmonary arterial system by thrombi, commonly originating from peripheral veins or abdominal organs. PTE is often secondary to underlying conditions such as protein-losing nephropathy, hyperadrenocorticism, neoplasia, or sepsis.
TreatmentProvide supplemental oxygen via nasal cannula, mask, or oxygen cage. Unfractionated heparin: 75–100 U/kg IV bolus, then 50–100 U/kg SC q6–8h. Alternatively, use low molecular weight heparin (enoxaparin) at 0.8–1 mg/kg SC q12h. Warfarin can be initiated at 0.05–0.1 mg/kg PO q24h, adjusting to achieve INR of 2–3 with careful monitoring. Clopidogrel at 1–2 mg/kg PO SID or aspirin at 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID may be added for antiplatelet effects. Therapy should be guided by coagulation monitoring (PT, aPTT, INR), and underlying diseases must be managed concurrently. Prognosis varies with the extent of embolism and concurrent conditions.

Drug AllergyOnset typically occurs 5 or more days after exposure to a new medication. Prominent clinical signs include vasculitis, intense pruritus, erythema, urticaria, allergic dermatitis, ataxia, and signs of immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (e.g., pale mucous membranes, jaundice). Drug allergy is an immune-mediated hypersensitivity reaction involving the development of antidrug antibodies. Type I (anaphylactic), Type II (cytotoxic), or Type III (immune complex-mediated) reactions may be involved. Severity can range from mild cutaneous signs to life-threatening systemic effects.
TreatmentImmediately discontinue the suspected drug. Administer diphenhydramine at 2-4 mg/kg PO or IM q8-12h for antihistaminic effect. In cases of anaphylaxis, administer epinephrine 0.01 mg/kg IM or SC (max 0.3 mg/dose in cats) and provide IV crystalloids for shock support. For systemic signs, prednisone at 1-2 mg/kg/day PO or dexamethasone sodium phosphate 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV may be used. If hemolysis is present, blood transfusions and immunosuppressive therapy (e.g., mycophenolate 10 mg/kg PO BID or cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO BID) may be necessary. Future avoidance of the implicated drug is critical; consider marking the medical record and issuing an allergy alert tag.

SialadenitisPainful, swollen, and warm salivary glands are the most prominent signs. Additional symptoms include dysphagia, ptyalism (drooling), anorexia, fever, nausea, gagging, retching, vomiting, and pain upon opening the mouth. Sialadenitis is inflammation of the salivary glands and can be primary or secondary to infection, trauma, neoplasia, or autoimmune processes. Infections may be bacterial (e.g., Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp.) or, less commonly, viral or fungal. Salivary gland infarction or mucocele may also occur.
TreatmentIf a mucocele, abscess, or fistula is present, surgical removal of the affected salivary gland (e.g., mandibular or sublingual sialoadenectomy) is indicated. For medical management, start empirical broad-spectrum antibiotics pending culture results: Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5-20 mg/kg PO BID or Cephalexin 20-30 mg/kg PO BID. Clindamycin 10-12 mg/kg PO BID is an alternative for anaerobic coverage. For immune-mediated causes or severe inflammation, administer Prednisone 1-2 mg/kg PO SID, tapering gradually over 2-4 weeks. Supportive care includes analgesics (e.g., gabapentin 10-20 mg/kg PO BID), hydration, and assisted feeding as needed.

Bacterial Food PoisoningAcute diarrhea is the most prominent clinical sign. Other symptoms may include vomiting, abdominal discomfort, dehydration, lethargy, anorexia, and fever. Bacterial food poisoning in dogs and cats is typically caused by ingestion of contaminated food containing pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, or Campylobacter spp. The condition is often self-limiting but may require intervention in young, immunocompromised, or severely affected animals.
TreatmentSupportive care is the cornerstone of treatment. Maintain hydration with IV fluids if dehydration is moderate to severe. Administer Butylscopolamine 0.2-0.3 mg/kg IM or SC BID for gastrointestinal spasm relief. If antibiotics are necessary (e.g., in febrile or immunocompromised patients), use Cefotaxime 30-40 mg/kg IV or IM BID, or Ceftiofur 2.2 mg/kg SC SID for 5-7 days. Cefuroxime 10-15 mg/kg IV BID may also be used. Probiotics (e.g., Enterococcus faecium or Saccharomyces boulardii) and dietary management with a bland, easily digestible diet are recommended. Antidiarrheals should be avoided in cases of suspected toxin-producing bacteria. Always base antibiotic therapy on culture and sensitivity when possible.

Canine ProtothecosisSevere large bowel diarrhea with mucus and hematochezia is often the most prominent sign. Systemic involvement may present as weight loss, vomiting, nodular skin lesions, nasal discharge, and genital dermatoses. Neurologic symptoms such as ataxia, seizures, blindness, and deafness may occur due to CNS dissemination. Canine protothecosis is a rare, often fatal infection caused by achlorophyllic algae (typically Prototheca zopfii). It most commonly affects immunocompromised dogs, leading to disseminated disease with colitis and multisystemic involvement. Lymphadenopathy is frequent.
TreatmentSystemic antifungal therapy is required. Use Posaconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID, or Voriconazole 6 mg/kg PO BID, as first-line agents. Amphotericin B deoxycholate at 0.25–0.5 mg/kg IV q48h (diluted and administered slowly to reduce nephrotoxicity) may be used in combination with azoles for refractory cases. Nystatin (50,000–150,000 IU PO q8h) has limited systemic absorption and is primarily useful for localized gastrointestinal forms. Supportive care includes fluids, nutritional support, and management of neurologic or dermatologic complications. Prognosis is poor in disseminated cases.

Shigellosis (Dog)Dogs are relatively resistant to Shigella infection, but immunocompromised or stressed individuals may exhibit acute large bowel diarrhea with mucus and hematochezia. Clinical signs can also include tenesmus, fever, dehydration, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Shigellosis is a zoonotic bacterial disease caused by gram-negative Shigella spp., more common in primates and humans. In dogs, it is rare but may be transmitted through ingestion of fecally contaminated material, particularly in unsanitary environments or in kennel settings.
TreatmentInitiate targeted antimicrobial therapy based on culture and sensitivity when possible. Use Trimethoprim-sulfonamide 15–30 mg/kg PO or IV BID for 7 days. Alternatives include Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID, Chloramphenicol 50 mg/kg PO TID, or Tetracycline 22 mg/kg PO TID (avoid in young or pregnant animals). Supportive care includes IV fluids for dehydration, a bland highly digestible diet, and monitoring for systemic signs. Isolation may be necessary due to zoonotic potential. Prognosis is good with early treatment.

Canine tuberculosisThe most prominent symptoms include persistent fever, progressive weight loss, anorexia, harsh nonproductive cough, dysphagia, and hypersalivation. Pulmonary involvement is common, but systemic signs may occur due to dissemination. Tuberculosis in dogs is caused primarily by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium bovis, and Mycobacterium avium. Infection is rare but poses zoonotic risks and often requires prolonged therapy.
Treatment Treatment requires prolonged multidrug therapy including Isoniazid 10 mg/kg PO SID, Rifampin 10–15 mg/kg PO SID, and Ethambutol 15–25 mg/kg PO SID for a minimum of 6–12 months. Streptomycin 15 mg/kg IM every 48 hours may be added in severe cases. Therapy should be guided by specialist consultation and regular monitoring due to potential drug toxicity and resistance. Supportive care and isolation precautions are essential.Due to the zoonotic potential and difficulty in treatment, prognosis is guarded to poor.

Tapeworm InfectionThe most prominent symptoms include anemia, weight loss, diarrhea, and visible segments of tapeworm (proglottids) hanging from the anus. Dogs and cats may also show scooting behavior due to perianal irritation. Tapeworm infection in dogs and cats is primarily caused by Dipylidium caninum and other cestodes. It is often associated with flea infestations, which serve as intermediate hosts.
TreatmentFor puppies and kittens under 6 months, Fenbendazole at 50 mg/kg PO SID for 3 consecutive days is effective. For older animals, a single dose of Fenbendazole 100 mg/kg PO can be used. Praziquantel is the drug of choice at 5 mg/kg PO or IM as a single dose. Niclosamide at 110 mg/kg PO is an alternative. Epsiprantel dosing is 5 mg/kg PO once for dogs and 2.5 mg/kg PO once for cats. Flea control is essential to prevent reinfection. Follow-up fecal exams are recommended to confirm parasite clearance.

Feline Enteric Coronavirus (FEC) Infection Most cats, especially adults, are subclinical carriers. Young cats may show mild diarrhea and intermittent fever. Other signs can include lethargy and anorexia. FEC is a common viral infection in cats that primarily affects the intestinal tract and is usually self-limiting. It is distinct from the more severe feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), which arises from mutations of FEC.
TreatmentSupportive care is the mainstay, including fluid therapy to prevent dehydration and nutritional support. Antispasmodics such as Butylscopolamine (Spanil) can be used at 0.1 ml/kg IV or IM BID or 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID to relieve gastrointestinal cramping. Antibiotics like Cefuroxime 20-30 mg/kg PO BID may be used only if secondary bacterial infections are suspected. There is no specific antiviral treatment for FEC; management focuses on supportive care and monitoring for signs of progression to FIP.

Canine Coronavirus InfectionAcute onset of mild to severe hemorrhagic diarrhea, primarily in neonatal and young weanling puppies. Additional prominent signs include vomiting, lethargy, anorexia, dehydration, and abdominal discomfort. Canine coronavirus (CCoV) is a highly contagious viral infection transmitted via the fecal-oral route. While often self-limiting, CCoV can exacerbate enteric disease, especially when co-infections like canine parvovirus (CPV) are present, significantly increasing morbidity and mortality.
TreatmentSupportive care is the cornerstone of treatment. Administer balanced crystalloid fluids (e.g., Lactated Ringer's) IV or SC to correct dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Broad-spectrum antibiotics to prevent secondary bacterial infections: Amoxicillin-clavulanate at 20 mg/kg PO or IV q12h for 7 days is recommended. Antiemetics (e.g., maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID) may help control vomiting. Nutritional support with easily digestible, bland diets should be initiated as soon as vomiting subsides. Strict hygiene, isolation of infected animals, and environmental disinfection are critical to prevent spread. Vaccination may reduce severity but does not fully prevent infection.

Granulomatous Meningoencephalomyelitis (GME)Prominent neurologic signs include spastic tetraparesis, vestibular ataxia, head tilt, abnormal nystagmus, seizures, circling, visual deficits, anisocoria, and abnormalities in pupillary light reflexes. Systemic signs such as fever and depression may also occur. GME is a presumed immune-mediated inflammatory disease of the central nervous system, most commonly affecting young to middle-aged small-breed dogs. It involves granulomatous infiltration of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges.
TreatmentInitial therapy includes immunosuppression with Prednisone at 2 mg/kg PO BID for 4 weeks, then tapered gradually to a maintenance dose of 0.5 mg/kg PO SID over several months. Cytosine arabinoside (Cytarabine) 50 mg/m² SC BID for 2 consecutive days, repeated every 3 weeks, is often used as adjunct therapy. Cyclosporine may be administered at 5-7 mg/kg PO BID to sustain long-term immunosuppression. GME is rarely curable and typically requires lifelong immunosuppressive management. Neurologic monitoring and supportive care (such as seizure control with anticonvulsants) are essential.

Immune-Mediated Thrombocytopenia (IMT)Often asymptomatic in mild cases. Clinically significant hemorrhage may occur when platelet counts fall below 30,000/μL. Petechiae, ecchymoses, epistaxis, hematuria, and melena are common. In secondary IMT, signs may reflect an underlying condition (e.g., infections, neoplasia, drugs). IMT is an immune-mediated disorder in which autoantibodies target platelets and/or megakaryocytes, leading to thrombocytopenia. It is common in dogs and uncommon in cats.
Treatment Initial therapy involves immunosuppression with Prednisone at 2 mg/kg PO BID for 2-3 weeks, then tapered based on response. Vincristine 0.02 mg/kg IV once may be used to stimulate platelet release. Danazol 5 mg/kg PO BID can be added as a steroid-sparing agent. Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 7–10 days followed by a maintenance dose of 0.5 mg/kg PO every other day is useful in refractory cases (not for cats). Cyclophosphamide at 50 mg/m² PO SID for 4 days may be used for severe or nonresponsive disease. Famotidine 0.5 mg/kg PO SID is recommended to protect the gastrointestinal tract from steroid-associated ulceration. Transfusions of packed red blood cells may be required if anemia is severe. Platelet transfusions are rarely effective due to rapid destruction but may be considered in life-threatening hemorrhage.

Tropical Canine HemoplasmosisMost common signs include pale mucous membranes, lethargy, anorexia, and icterus. In severe or untreated cases, acute hemolytic anemia can lead to collapse and death. Canine hemoplasmosis is caused by the epicellular parasite Mycoplasma haemocanis, which attaches to erythrocytes. It is more likely to cause clinical disease in immunocompromised or splenectomized dogs.
Treatment Doxycycline is the drug of choice: 5 mg/kg PO BID for 21 days. Alternatively, Enrofloxacin at 10 mg/kg PO SID for 10 days may be considered in resistant cases. Tetracycline 22 mg/kg PO TID or Oxytetracycline 20 mg/kg PO TID for 21 days can also be used but are generally less preferred due to GI side effects. In cases of severe anemia, a blood transfusion is indicated. Supportive care includes IV fluids, nutritional support, and close monitoring of hematocrit and clinical status. Prognosis is good with prompt diagnosis and appropriate therapy.

SalmonellosisProminent clinical signs include fever, vomiting, diarrhea (which may be bloody), abdominal pain, and dehydration. Systemic involvement can result in anorexia, weight loss, pale mucous membranes, epistaxis, coughing, dyspnea, and neurologic signs such as hyperexcitability, ataxia, posterior paresis, blindness, and seizures. Salmonellosis is a zoonotic bacterial disease caused by various Salmonella species. It can present as acute gastroenteritis or progress to septicemia, particularly in immunocompromised or young animals. Subclinical carriers are also common.
TreatmentSupportive care is the cornerstone of therapy. Administer parenteral isotonic fluids (e.g., lactated Ringer's solution) to correct dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Antibiotics are indicated only for animals with systemic illness, sepsis, or high risk of bacteremia. Use Trimethoprim-sulfonamide 15–30 mg/kg PO or IV q12h, or Cefotaxime 30 mg/kg IV/IM/SC BID. Cefixime 12.5 mg/kg PO BID for 7–14 days may be used as an oral option. Severely affected patients may require hospitalization, antiemetics, nutritional support, and close monitoring. Zoonotic precautions should be taken when handling suspected cases.

Idiopathic Tremor Syndrome Generalized whole-body tremors that worsen with excitement or exercise and resolve during sleep are the hallmark clinical sign, particularly in small white breeds such as West Highland White Terriers and Maltese. Additional signs include spontaneous nystagmus, poor or absent oculocephalic reflexes, cerebellar or vestibular ataxia, head tilt, varying degrees of paresis, and occasionally seizures. This syndrome, also known as "Little White Shaker Syndrome," is a non-suppurative meningoencephalitis of unknown cause, likely immune-mediated. It typically affects young adult dogs.
Treatment Immunosuppressive corticosteroid therapy is the mainstay. Start with Prednisone at 1 mg/kg PO SID for 4 weeks, followed by tapering to 0.5 mg/kg PO SID for 2 weeks, then every 72 hours for 4 additional weeks. In refractory cases, Diazepam 0.25 mg/kg PO BID or Propranolol 1 mg/kg PO BID may help reduce tremors. In dogs with severe or relapsing disease, adjunct immunosuppressants such as Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID (then reduced to every other day) may be added. Most cases respond well, but relapses can occur.

Otitis InternaHead tilt, symmetrical ataxia, abnormal head posture, nystagmus (typically horizontal or rotary), and gait changes are the most prominent signs. Otitis interna is an inflammatory disease of the inner ear structures, commonly resulting from progression of otitis media. Vestibular dysfunction arises due to disruption of cranial nerve VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve), and the condition may lead to permanent neurologic deficits if untreated.
Treatment Systemic antibiotics based on culture and sensitivity are essential. Empirical options include Amoxicillin-Clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID or Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO SID for 4-6 weeks. In cases of chronic or non-responsive otitis, surgical intervention such as ventral bulla osteotomy is indicated for drainage and debridement. For supportive care, use Meclizine 0.5 mg/kg PO BID to control vestibular signs and motion sickness, and Acepromazine 0.01-0.05 mg/kg PO SID as an antiemetic and sedative. Topical antibiotics (e.g., Framycetin or Fusidic acid 2-10 drops/ear BID) may be used for concurrent otitis externa but are not sufficient alone for inner ear infections. Keeping the animal in a quiet, dark environment helps reduce vestibular stimulation during recovery.

Canine TrichuriasisLarge bowel diarrhea with mucus and hematochezia is the most prominent clinical sign. Additional symptoms may include weight loss, weakness, anorexia, polydipsia, abdominal discomfort, dehydration, bradycardia, and hypothermia in severe cases. Canine trichuriasis is caused by infection with Trichuris vulpis, a whipworm that primarily affects the cecum and colon. Heavy infestations can also involve the ileum, leading to more extensive gastrointestinal signs. Systemic illness may occur in advanced cases due to chronic fluid and electrolyte loss.
TreatmentAdminister Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 3 consecutive days. Repeat treatment in 3 weeks and again in 3 months to eliminate all life stages and prevent reinfection. Milbemycin oxime (0.5 mg/kg PO once) or Febantel (10 mg/kg PO SID for 3 days) are effective alternatives. Supportive care includes fluid therapy to correct dehydration and electrolyte imbalances, nutritional support, and anti-inflammatory treatment if colitis is present. Environmental hygiene and fecal rechecks are essential to prevent reinfection.

Erythropoietin (EPO) AbnormalitiesProgressive anemia is the most prominent symptom, accompanied by weakness, pallor, collapse, and exercise intolerance. Other signs may include hyperemia of mucous membranes, sclera, and skin, as well as signs of hyperviscosity in cases of erythrocytosis. Erythropoietin is a glycoprotein hormone produced by renal peritubular interstitial cells. It stimulates erythropoiesis in the bone marrow. Abnormal levels of EPO, whether deficient (as seen in chronic kidney disease) or excessive (e.g., secondary to renal tumors), can result in either anemia or erythrocytosis.
TreatmentIn cases of erythrocytosis, therapeutic phlebotomy is recommended: slowly withdraw 10-20 mL/kg of blood via jugular catheter and replace with an equal volume of isotonic crystalloid fluids (e.g., lactated Ringer’s solution) to reduce blood viscosity. This may need to be repeated every few weeks based on hematocrit levels. For EPO deficiency (e.g., due to chronic renal failure), administer recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) or darbepoetin alfa at 1–2 µg/kg SC once weekly, along with oral iron supplementation (e.g., ferrous sulfate 5–10 mg/kg/day PO). If a renal mass or unilateral renal lymphoma is identified, nephrectomy may be curative. For bilateral renal lymphoma, chemotherapy protocols such as CHOP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone) are considered. Regular CBC monitoring is essential.

Intestinal IntussusceptionAcute onset of vomiting and profuse diarrhea (often with blood and mucus), abdominal pain, lethargy, anorexia, and palpable abdominal mass are the most prominent signs. May be preceded by enteritis or parasitism. Intussusception is the telescoping of one segment of the intestine into another, leading to bowel obstruction and possible ischemia. It is more common in young animals but can occur in all age groups, often secondary to GI irritation.
TreatmentSurgical reduction or resection with end-to-end anastomosis is the definitive treatment. Stabilize patient with IV fluids (e.g., Lactated Ringer's Solution at 60-90 mL/kg/hr until perfusion improves), analgesia (e.g., Methadone 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IV q4-6h), and broad-spectrum antibiotics such as Cefuroxime 20-30 mg/kg IV q8h or Cefazolin 22 mg/kg IV q8h perioperatively. Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID may help relieve colic symptoms prior to surgery but is not curative. Postoperative care includes antiemetics (e.g., Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID), nutritional support, and monitoring for recurrence. Prognosis depends on the duration and extent of ischemia before surgical intervention.

Chronic IntussusceptionRecurrent or chronic diarrhea, abdominal pain, intermittent vomiting, weight loss, and palpable abdominal mass are the most prominent clinical signs. Chronic intussusception is a condition where a segment of the intestine telescopes into an adjacent segment, often intermittently, leading to partial obstruction, vascular compromise, and chronic gastrointestinal signs. It may occur secondary to enteritis, parasites, or tumors and is more common in young animals.
Treatment - Immediate stabilization: IV fluid therapy with balanced crystalloids (e.g., Lactated Ringer's) to correct dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.
- Analgesia: Buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg (IV or IM q6-8h) or Methadone 0.2 mg/kg (IM q6-8h).
- Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg (PO or IM BID) may be used short-term to reduce intestinal spasms preoperatively.
- Surgical correction is the definitive treatment: Enteroplication or resection and anastomosis if necrosis or irreversible damage is present.
- Postoperative care: Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as Cefazolin 22 mg/kg (IV TID) or Amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg (PO BID).
Prognosis is favorable with early surgical intervention. Delay in treatment may result in necrosis, sepsis, or death.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)Intermittent large bowel diarrhea with mucus and fresh blood is the most prominent symptom. No systemic illness is typically present. Digital rectal examination may be normal or reveal soft feces with mucus or fresh blood. IBS in dogs and cats is a functional gastrointestinal disorder associated with motility changes, stress, or dietary sensitivities. It is often a diagnosis of exclusion.
TreatmentAdd soluble fiber such as psyllium at 1–5 g/day (small dogs and cats: 1/4 to 1/2 tsp BID; medium to large dogs: 1–3 tablespoons/day PO) to the diet.
Antispasmodic therapy: Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID may help reduce colonic spasms.
Antidiarrheal: Diphenoxylate-atropine (0.1–0.2 mg/kg PO BID to TID) for short-term use. Antianxiety therapy may include Clidinium-Chlordiazepoxide combination (0.1–0.25 mg/kg PO BID), or fluoxetine 1–2 mg/kg PO SID for chronic stress-related cases. Consider Cefuroxime only if concurrent bacterial colitis is suspected (22–30 mg/kg PO BID for 7 days).
Dietary management, stress reduction, and behavior modification are key to long-term control. Prognosis is good with consistent therapy and diet.

Toxin IngestionAcute diarrhea and neurological signs such as stupor or coma are the most prominent symptoms. Other signs may include vomiting, hypersalivation, abdominal pain, tremors, seizures, or collapse. Toxin ingestion in dogs and cats can result from exposure to chemicals, heavy metals, human medications, rodenticides, spoiled foods, garbage, or toxic plants. Prompt recognition and intervention are critical to prevent systemic damage.
Treatment If ingestion occurred within 1–2 hours and the patient is alert, emesis may be induced (Apomorphine 0.03 mg/kg IV in dogs or xylazine 0.44 mg/kg IM in cats). Administer activated charcoal (1–4 g/kg PO once; may be repeated every 6–8 hours if enterohepatic recirculation is suspected). Initiate IV fluid therapy (Lactated Ringer’s Solution or Normosol-R at 60–90 mL/kg/day, adjusted based on hydration status and shock). For neurological symptoms, Diazepam 0.25–0.5 mg/kg IV may be used to control seizures.
Use antidotes if a specific toxin is known:
Rodenticides: Vitamin K1 at 2.5–5 mg/kg PO BID for 3–4 weeks.
Organophosphates: Atropine 0.04 mg/kg IV every 3–4 hours; 2-PAM at 20 mg/kg IM or slow IV every 8 hours.
Heavy metal toxicity (e.g., lead): CaEDTA 66 mg/kg SC BID for 3–5 days.
Supportive care includes: Butylscopolamine (Spanil) at 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID to relieve intestinal spasms. Antibiotic therapy, such as Cefuroxime 22–30 mg/kg PO BID, may be used if secondary bacterial infection is suspected. Prognosis depends on the type and amount of toxin, time to treatment, and systemic involvement. Early intervention improves outcomes significantly.

Leptospirosis in dogsThe most prominent symptoms include acute renal pain, renomegaly, oliguria or anuria (especially in acute renal failure), or polyuria/polydipsia (in subacute or chronic cases). In some cases, dogs may be subclinically infected but shed the organism for prolonged periods. Leptospirosis is a serious zoonotic bacterial infection caused by Leptospira spp., especially Leptospira kirschneri serovar grippotyphosa. It primarily affects the kidneys and/or liver and is of particular importance in dogs exposed to wildlife or stagnant water.
Treatment Initiate aggressive IV fluid therapy to manage renal failure and maintain perfusion (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s or Plasmalyte-A at 60–90 mL/kg/day, adjusted to hydration and urine output). For acute leptospiremia, use
Ampicillin 22 mg/kg IV every 6–8 hours or
Penicillin G sodium25,000–40,000 IU/kg IV every 6 hours for 10–14 days.
To eliminate carrier state and prevent shedding, follow with
Doxycycline5 mg/kg PO or IV BID for 14 days. In cases with GI intolerance to doxycycline,
Azithromycin 20 mg/kg PO SID for 7 days can be used as an alternative. Monitor renal parameters, electrolytes, and urine output daily. Early diagnosis and appropriate antibiotic therapy significantly improve prognosis. Zoonotic risk requires strict hygiene and handling precautions.

Trypanosomiasis (Surra of Dog)The most prominent symptoms include progressive anemia, corneal opacity, intermittent fever, and rapid emaciation. Other clinical signs may include peripheral edema, enlarged lymph nodes, abdominal distension, diarrhea, supraventricular arrhythmias, pale mucous membranes, and tachycardia. Trypanosomiasis (caused by Trypanosoma evansi) is a protozoan parasitic disease transmitted by biting flies, particularly affecting dogs in endemic areas. It can be acute, subacute, or chronic, with systemic and cardiac involvement.
TreatmentDiminazene aceturate 3.5–7 mg/kg IM once (repeat in 7–10 days if needed). In refractory cases, Pentamidine isethionate 4 mg/kg IM every 48 hours for 3 doses may be used.
In chronic or resistant infections: Quinapyramine sulfate-chloride combination (5–7.5 mg/kg IM) is effective both therapeutically and prophylactically (not for cats).
Suramin 100 mg/kg IV slowly (given once; divide over 2–3 days if needed due to risk of hypersensitivity).
For supportive long-term control or in combination therapy: Allopurinol 10 mg/kg PO BID may be added for its anti-trypanosomal effect.
Alternative antitrypanosomal agents like Nifurtimox (5 mg/kg PO BID) or Benznidazole (6.5 mg/kg PO BID for 60 days) are used in experimental or resistant cases but with careful monitoring for toxicity. Close monitoring, vector control, and repeat treatment protocols are essential in endemic zones. Prognosis varies based on disease chronicity and cardiac involvement.

Perianal FistulaThe most prominent symptoms include insidious onset of excessive licking of the perianal region, one or more draining tracts with thick, malodorous discharge, perianal bleeding, dyschezia, tenesmus, constipation, and marked pain upon raising the tail or rectal palpation. Perianal fistulas are chronic, painful, progressive inflammatory conditions affecting the perianal region. Most commonly seen in German Shepherds and Irish Setters, the condition is believed to have an immune-mediated component with secondary bacterial involvement.
TreatmentCyclosporine 5–10 mg/kg PO BID for 6–8 weeks (dose adjusted based on response). For enhanced effect, it may be combined with Ketoconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID to reduce cyclosporine dose and cost.
Prednisone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID for 2–4 weeks, then taper over 4–6 weeks if needed for initial inflammation control.
Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 2–3 weeks (dogs only; contraindicated in cats).
Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 10 days if anaerobic infection is suspected.
Cephalexin 20 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days if secondary bacterial infection is present.
Surgical intervention such as anal sacculectomy or fistulectomy may be required in refractory or recurrent cases.
Combination immunosuppressive therapy with strict perianal hygiene and dietary fiber supplementation often improves outcomes. Long-term management may be necessary. Prognosis is variable but guarded in recurrent or severe cases.

PeritonitisProminent symptoms include fever, depression, anorexia, vomiting, acute abdominal pain, abdominal distension, tachypnea, dyspnea, and signs of acute diarrhea. Peritonitis is inflammation of the serous membranes lining the abdominal cavity, and it may be infectious or non-infectious. It can arise as primary (rare) or more commonly secondary to trauma, ruptured viscera, pancreatitis, neoplasia, or postoperative complications.
TreatmentAggressive fluid resuscitation using isotonic crystalloids (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s) to treat hypovolemia and shock.
Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID may provide temporary relief of visceral pain, though not a primary treatment.
Ceftiofur 2.2 mg/kg SC or IV SID (broad-spectrum cephalosporin for suspected Gram-negative or anaerobic bacteria).
Cefuroxime 20–30 mg/kg IV BID is an alternative cephalosporin for mixed infections.
Consider adding Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg IV or PO BID for anaerobic coverage.
If septic peritonitis is confirmed, exploratory laparotomy with abdominal lavage and placement of drains may be necessary.
Close monitoring, correction of electrolyte and acid-base imbalances, and nutritional support are vital. Prognosis depends on underlying cause and speed of intervention. Early surgical and antimicrobial therapy improves survival rates.

Exfoliative Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (ECLE)Prominent symptoms include widespread scaling (dermatopathy), alopecia, follicular casting, crusting, and ulcerative lesions particularly over the muzzle, pinnae, and dorsal trunk. Pain, pruritus, and pyrexia may be present, along with hyperkeratosis and secondary bacterial dermatitis. ECLE is a hereditary, immune-mediated exfoliative dermatopathy most commonly reported in German Shorthaired Pointers. It typically presents at a young age and progresses chronically.
Treatment Topical therapy with antiseborrheic shampoos (e.g., containing sulfur or salicylic acid) 2-3 times weekly.
Essential fatty acid supplementation: Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids at 40-60 mg/kg/day PO to help restore barrier function.
Tetracycline (20-25 mg/kg PO TID) and Niacinamide (250 mg/dog PO TID for dogs under 15 kg; 500 mg/dog PO TID for larger breeds) as an immunomodulatory combination.
Prednisone 1-2.2 mg/kg PO SID initially, tapered to the lowest effective dose over weeks.
Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only, contraindicated in cats) for immunosuppression, used with monitoring for myelosuppression.
Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO SID is often effective in refractory or steroid-sparing regimens.
Regular dermatologic follow-up is critical. While not curable, symptom control is possible. Genetic counseling is advised for breeding animals.

Discoid Lupus Erythematosus (DLE)The most prominent symptoms include erosion and ulceration of the skin, particularly leukoderma and depigmentation at the junction of haired skin and the nasal planum, as well as involvement of the lips, oral cavity, periocular area, and genitalia. DLE is an autoimmune, localized cutaneous form of lupus most commonly affecting the facial region of dogs. It is exacerbated by UV light exposure.
TreatmentStrict avoidance of sun exposure; apply canine-safe sunblock (e.g., containing titanium dioxide) to affected areas daily.
Topical corticosteroids: Betamethasone, Fluocinolone, or Triamcinolone applied once or twice daily to lesions. Use Hydrocortisone 1% cream for milder or maintenance therapy.
Topical calcineurin inhibitors: Cyclosporine (0.2% ointment) or Tacrolimus (0.1% ointment) applied BID.
Systemic cyclosporine: 5 mg/kg PO SID; taper as clinical signs improve.
Vitamin E: 400-800 IU/day PO and Omega-3 fatty acids: 40-60 mg/kg/day PO may provide adjunct benefit.
Tetracycline (22 mg/kg PO TID) and Niacinamide (250-500 mg/dog PO TID) combination therapy may help reduce inflammation without immunosuppression.
Most cases respond well to combination therapy. Regular dermatological monitoring is advised. Long-term sun protection is crucial to prevent relapse.

Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency (EPI) Prominent symptoms include oily staining of the perineum due to steatorrhea, chronic weight loss despite a variable (often normal or increased) appetite, and progressive emaciation. EPI in cats results from destruction or atrophy of pancreatic acinar cells, leading to insufficient secretion of digestive enzymes. Chronic pancreatitis is a common underlying cause. Maldigestion and malabsorption follow, leading to poor body condition and vitamin deficiencies.
Treatment Enzyme replacement therapy: Powdered pancreatic enzyme (Pancrelipase) at 1/2 tsp per 5 kg body weight per meal, mixed with food immediately before feeding. Avoid heat inactivation (do not cook or warm).
Cobalamin (Vitamin B12): 250 µg SC weekly for 6 weeks, then every 14 days for 6 weeks, then every 28 days as needed based on serum cobalamin levels. Oral cobalamin (250 µg/day) may be used for maintenance in some cats.
Dietary management: Highly digestible, moderate-fat, high-protein commercial feline diet. Avoid high-fiber foods which can inhibit enzyme action.
Antibiotic therapy: Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days may be used if small intestinal bacterial overgrowth is suspected.
Prognosis is generally favorable with consistent enzyme supplementation and dietary management, although lifelong treatment is usually necessary.

Nonerosive ArthritisLameness affecting one or more limbs is the most prominent clinical sign. The distal limb joints such as the carpus, tarsus, and interphalangeal joints are most commonly involved. Monoarticular disease often affects the elbow. Clinical features include joint pain, effusion, periarticular fibrosis, soft tissue swelling, and palpable joint hyperthermia. Signs may be intermittent or persistent and can shift between limbs. Nonerosive arthritis refers to periarticular inflammation without radiographic or histologic joint destruction. Immune-mediated causes include idiopathic immune-mediated polyarthritis (IMPA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), polyarthritis associated with chronic disease, and drug-induced polyarthritis.
Treatment First-line immunosuppressive therapy: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days, tapered gradually to 1 mg/kg PO SID for 1–2 weeks, then to 0.5 mg/kg PO every other day for several weeks, based on clinical response.
For refractory cases:
- Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 14–21 days, then 1 mg/kg PO every other day for 30–60 days beyond remission (dogs only; contraindicated in cats).
- Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO BID, tapered after remission.
- Methotrexate 0.2–0.3 mg/kg PO once weekly or 2.5 mg/m² PO SID (dogs only).
Adjunctive therapies:
- Pain management: NSAIDs (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID) once inflammation is controlled and only under strict monitoring.
- Arthrodesis may be considered in cases with irreversible joint damage.
Prognosis is generally good with immunosuppressive therapy, although lifelong management may be necessary in some cases. Regular monitoring of CBC and liver enzymes is essential during immunosuppressive treatment.

Erosive ArthritisLameness affecting one or more limbs is the primary symptom. Distal limb joints such as the carpus, tarsus, and interphalangeal joints are most commonly involved. Prominent clinical signs include joint pain, effusion, palpable joint hyperthermia, and progressive lameness. Signs may be intermittent or persistent and may shift from limb to limb. In chronic cases, joint subluxation or luxation is often present. Erosive arthritis involves immune-mediated inflammation leading to progressive destruction of articular cartilage and bone. It includes conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in dogs and feline chronic progressive polyarthritis in cats. RA typically affects small-breed adult dogs, while the feline form affects cats between 1 and 5 years of age.
Treatment Initial immunosuppressive therapy:
- Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 10–14 days, followed by tapering to the lowest effective dose (e.g., 1 mg/kg PO SID or QOD).
- In dogs with rheumatoid arthritis: Sodium aurothioglucose 1 mg/kg IM weekly for 4–6 weeks may help in reducing immune-mediated joint destruction.
- Methotrexate 0.2–0.3 mg/kg PO once weekly can be used as an alternative or adjunct in refractory cases (dogs only).
- In cats with progressive polyarthritis: Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO BID tapered as response improves; Cyclosporine 5–7 mg/kg PO SID may be added in resistant cases.
Supportive therapy:
- Omega-3 fatty acids and chondroprotectives (e.g., glucosamine/chondroitin sulfate) may be considered as adjuncts.
- NSAIDs (e.g., meloxicam 0.05–0.1 mg/kg PO SID) are only recommended after immunosuppression is well controlled.
- Arthrodesis or surgical stabilization may be considered in joints with irreversible damage.
Regular follow-up with radiographic monitoring and bloodwork (CBC, liver/kidney function) is essential. Prognosis is guarded to fair depending on severity and response to therapy.

Escherichia coli InfectionAcute diarrhea is the most prominent clinical sign. In more severe cases, it may be accompanied by dehydration, lethargy, fever, and abdominal discomfort. Escherichia coli infections in dogs and cats typically occur due to enterotoxigenic strains and are often associated with compromised immunity, poor hygiene, or concurrent gastrointestinal disease.
Treatment Supportive and Antimicrobial Therapy:
- Fluid therapy: IV crystalloid fluids (e.g., lactated Ringer's or 0.9% NaCl) with electrolytes to correct dehydration and acid-base imbalance.
- Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID – for relief of intestinal spasms.
- Ceftiofur: 2.2 mg/kg SC SID – effective for systemic infections caused by E. coli.
- Cefuroxime: 20-30 mg/kg IV or IM BID – preferred in moderate to severe infections.
- Cefotaxime: 30 mg/kg IV, IM, or SC BID – broad-spectrum third-generation cephalosporin.
- Enrofloxacin: 5 mg/kg PO, SC, or IV SID – avoid in young animals due to risk of cartilage damage.
- Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine: 15-30 mg/kg PO BID – effective against susceptible E. coli strains; ensure adequate hydration to reduce risk of crystalluria.
Probiotics and dietary management: Feed a bland, easily digestible diet (e.g., boiled chicken and rice) during recovery. Add probiotics containing Enterococcus faecium or Saccharomyces boulardii.
Note: Antimicrobial selection should ideally be guided by culture and sensitivity testing. Prognosis is good with early treatment.

Intestinal ObstructionVomiting, anorexia, and lethargy are the most prominent signs. Diarrhea, abdominal pain, and marked dehydration or collapse due to hypovolemia, endotoxemia, or septicemia may occur in severe or prolonged cases. Intestinal obstruction in dogs and cats may be partial or complete, and commonly results from foreign bodies, neoplasia, intussusception, or strictures. Rapid diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent ischemic necrosis or perforation.
TreatmentStabilization:
- IV fluid therapy: Lactated Ringer’s solution at shock doses (dogs: 90 mL/kg/hr; cats: 60 mL/kg/hr) with reassessment every 15-30 minutes.
- Potassium supplementation: 20-40 mEq/L added to fluids, adjusted based on serum potassium.
- Broad-spectrum antibiotics: - Ampicillin 22 mg/kg IV TID + Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IV SID, or - Cefazolin 22 mg/kg IV TID if perforation is suspected.
- Antiemetics: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID, or Ondansetron 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV BID.
Surgical Management:
- Immediate exploratory laparotomy is indicated for complete obstruction, foreign body removal, or suspected perforation.
- Post-operative care includes IV fluids, analgesia (e.g., Methadone 0.2 mg/kg IV Q4–6H or Buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV Q6–8H), and nutritional support.
Prognosis is good if treated early. Delayed treatment increases risk of septic peritonitis and death.

Feline MicrosporidiosisSevere muscle spasms, superficial corneal infection with blepharospasm, depression, and progressive paralysis are the most prominent clinical signs. Feline Microsporidiosis is a rare but emerging infectious disease caused by microsporidian parasites, particularly Encephalitozoon cuniculi or Encephalitozoon intestinalis. It may affect the central nervous system, kidneys, eyes, or muscles. Infection may be opportunistic in immunocompromised animals.
Treatment - Albendazole 25 mg/kg (PO SID) for 10–21 days (caution: monitor for bone marrow suppression).
- Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg (PO SID) for 14 days may be used as an alternative with better safety.
- Topical ocular therapy: Lomefloxacin or Ofloxacin drops TID for corneal involvement.
- Dantrolene 1 mg/kg (PO BID) or 2-3 mg/kg (IV slowly) for management of severe muscle spasms (monitor hepatic function).
Supportive care is critical, including hydration, nutritional support, and management of neurological symptoms. Prognosis is guarded and depends on organ involvement and immune status.

Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO) Chronic or intermittent diarrhea, weight loss, increased flatulence, borborygmi, and poor coat condition are the most prominent clinical signs. Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO) is a syndrome characterized by an abnormal proliferation of bacteria in the small intestine, which interferes with digestion and absorption. It can be idiopathic or secondary to other gastrointestinal disorders such as exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, partial obstructions, or motility disturbances.
Treatment - Tylosin 25 mg/kg (PO BID) for 4–6 weeks (commonly used in dogs with chronic antibiotic-responsive diarrhea).
- Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg (PO BID) for 10–14 days (has both antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects).
- Oxytetracycline 20–25 mg/kg (PO TID) for 2–4 weeks may be considered as an alternative.
- Diet: Highly digestible, low-fat, hypoallergenic diet to minimize intestinal inflammation and support digestion.
- Probiotics: Administer daily to help restore normal intestinal flora after antibiotic therapy.
Treatment should address any underlying primary causes such as exocrine pancreatic insufficiency or inflammatory bowel disease. Long-term antibiotic use should be avoided unless recurrence is documented. Prognosis is good with appropriate therapy and dietary management.

Liver Disease (Hepatocellular Failure, Cholestasis)Chronic diarrhea, abdominal distension, and the presence of fluid in the abdominal cavity (ascites, often a transudate) are the most prominent clinical signs. Liver disease in dogs and cats may result from hepatocellular injury, bile duct obstruction (cholestasis), or hepatic vascular abnormalities. It often leads to impaired protein synthesis, portal hypertension, and accumulation of toxins, necessitating comprehensive supportive and targeted therapy.
Treatment - Ursodeoxycholic acid 10–15 mg/kg (PO SID) to improve bile flow and reduce cholestasis.
- S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) 18–20 mg/kg (PO SID) for hepatic antioxidant support.
- Arginine supplementation (especially in cats): 250–500 mg/day (PO) in divided doses to support urea cycle function.
- Lactulose 0.5–1 ml/kg (PO BID-TID) if hepatic encephalopathy is suspected.
- Low-protein, liver-supportive diet (e.g., Royal Canin Hepatic, Hill’s l/d).
- Diuretics (e.g., Spironolactone 2–4 mg/kg PO SID–BID) may be used in cases of refractory ascites.
- Butylscopolamine (Spanil®) 0.5 mg/kg (PO or IM BID) may provide temporary relief of GI cramping but is not a definitive treatment.
Monitoring of liver enzymes, bile acids, and coagulation profile is essential. Prognosis depends on underlying etiology and response to treatment. Early intervention improves outcomes.

Oral Cavity Trauma (Mandibular/Maxillary Fractures, Lacerations, Hematomas)Refusal to eat and drink, dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), and ptyalism (excessive salivation) are the most prominent clinical signs. Oral cavity trauma in dogs and cats may result from vehicular accidents, falls, animal fights, or iatrogenic injury. It can involve soft tissues (tongue, gingiva, mucosa) or hard tissues (mandible, maxilla, teeth), and may lead to secondary infections or impaired feeding.
Treatment - Surgical correction of fractures (mandibular/maxillary) using interdental wiring, external fixation, or bone plates depending on the type and location of fracture.
- Tooth extraction if dental trauma or luxation is severe or non-restorable.
- Wound care for lacerations: Irrigation with sterile saline or diluted chlorhexidine solution, followed by surgical debridement if needed.
- Broad-spectrum antibiotics: - Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5-25 mg/kg (PO BID) or - Clindamycin 5.5-11 mg/kg (PO BID) for 7–10 days.
- Analgesia: - Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg (PO SID) in dogs or 0.05 mg/kg in cats, or - Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg (IM or buccal, BID-TID).
- Soft or liquid diet for 1–2 weeks post-trauma to reduce oral stress.
Close monitoring for signs of infection, malocclusion, or difficulty in prehension and mastication is necessary. Prognosis is generally good with appropriate intervention.

Intestinal Parasitism (Whipworm, Heterobilharzia)Chronic diarrhea is the most prominent clinical sign. Intestinal parasitism due to whipworms (Trichuris vulpis) or Heterobilharzia americana (a trematode) is a significant cause of large intestinal diarrhea in dogs. Whipworms typically affect the cecum and colon, while Heterobilharzia may cause granulomatous intestinal and hepatic disease,
Treatment - Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg (PO SID) for 3-5 days; repeat in 3 weeks and again in 3 months for whipworm infestation.
- Milbemycin oxime 0.5–1 mg/kg (PO monthly) or Moxidectin/Imidacloprid combination for prevention and treatment of whipworm.
- Praziquantel 25 mg/kg (PO or SC BID) for 2 days for 10 days for treatment of Heterobilharzia.
- Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg (PO or IM BID) may be used for symptomatic relief of abdominal cramping.
Supportive care, including a highly digestible diet, hydration, and electrolyte balance, is essential. Fecal examination and PCR may help confirm diagnosis and monitor treatment success.

Clostridial ColitisChronic diarrhea, often large-bowel in nature (frequent defecation, small volumes, mucus, straining), is the most prominent clinical sign. Clostridial colitis in dogs and cats is commonly caused by overgrowth or toxin production from Clostridium perfringens or Clostridium difficile. It may be associated with dietary indiscretion, antibiotic use, or stress, and is diagnosed through fecal cytology, ELISA, or PCR for toxins.
Treatment - Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg (PO BID) for 5–10 days is the drug of choice for both C. perfringens and C. difficile.
- Tylosin 20–25 mg/kg (PO BID) for 7–14 days may be used in chronic or relapsing cases.
- Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg (PO or IM BID) may be used for symptomatic relief of intestinal cramping.
- Dietary modification: switch to a highly digestible, low-residue or hydrolyzed protein diet.
- Probiotics (containing Enterococcus faecium or Saccharomyces boulardii) may support intestinal flora balance.
Antibiotics like cefotaxime, ceftiofur, or cefuroxime are generally not first-line for clostridial colitis unless there's systemic involvement; their use should be guided by culture/sensitivity or when sepsis is suspected. Recurrent cases may need further gastrointestinal workup including endoscopy.

Fiber-Responsive Irritable Bowel Syndrome Chronic intermittent large-bowel diarrhea with mucus, tenesmus, and urgency is the most prominent clinical sign. Affected animals are typically otherwise healthy with normal appetite and weight. Fiber-responsive irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in dogs and cats is a functional large intestinal disorder thought to be related to colonic motility abnormalities and hypersensitivity. It is often diagnosed after ruling out infectious, inflammatory, or parasitic causes.
Treatment - Dietary management is the cornerstone: Introduce a high-fiber diet (e.g., psyllium husk 1 tsp per 10 kg body weight BID mixed with food) or a commercial high-fiber or gastrointestinal formula.
- Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg (PO or IM BID) may be used short-term to relieve cramping and colonic spasms.
- Avoid unnecessary antibiotic use. Cefotaxime is not indicated unless there's concurrent bacterial colitis, which is uncommon in IBS.
- Probiotics: Consider formulations containing Enterococcus faecium or Saccharomyces boulardii to help regulate gut microbiota.
- Behavioral modification and stress reduction may benefit some patients with suspected stress-related triggers.
Fiber-responsive IBS has a good prognosis with dietary and supportive therapy. Long-term medication is usually not required if diet is adequately managed.

Hyperparathyroidism in DogsOlder dogs presenting with insidious onset of clinical signs such as persistent hypercalcemia, polyuria and polydipsia, urinary incontinence, increased urine volume, anorexia, vomiting, constipation, lethargy, exercise intolerance, muscle weakness and wasting, shivering, muscle twitching, seizures, stiffness, and apparent limb pain are highly suggestive. Primary hyperparathyroidism is most commonly due to a solitary adenoma of one of the four parathyroid glands. This results in increased parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion, which raises serum calcium by enhancing renal calcium reabsorption and promoting bone resorption, while concurrently increasing urinary phosphorus excretion.
Treatment - IV fluid therapy (0.9% NaCl) to promote calciuresis.
- Furosemide 2-4 mg/kg (IV or SC TID) after fluid rehydration to enhance renal calcium excretion.
- Prednisone 1-2.2 mg/kg (PO BID) or Dexamethasone 0.1-0.22 mg/kg (IV or SC BID) to reduce bone resorption and intestinal calcium absorption.
- Sodium bicarbonate 1 mEq/kg (slow IV infusion) in severe metabolic acidosis with hypercalcemia (monitor for alkalosis).
- Bisphosphonates (e.g., Pamidronate 1.3-2 mg/kg diluted in 0.9% NaCl and infused over 2-4 hours IV) can be used to inhibit osteoclastic bone resorption.
- Etidronate 10-20 mg/kg/day (PO BID) may be used as an alternative bisphosphonate in chronic management.
- Surgical removal (parathyroidectomy) of the abnormal parathyroid gland is the definitive treatment. Postoperative monitoring for hypocalcemia is critical.
Serial monitoring of ionized calcium and PTH concentrations is essential in both medical and surgical management. Prognosis is good with appropriate treatment.

Trigeminal NeuropathyAcute onset of jaw paresis or jaw paralysis with an inability to close the mouth is the hallmark sign. Prominent clinical signs include drooling, difficulty in prehension of food and water, and occasionally concurrent facial nerve dysfunction such as facial droop or reduced blink reflex. Trigeminal neuropathy is an idiopathic condition characterized by bilateral trigeminal nerve motor dysfunction. It may have an immune-mediated etiology and typically affects middle-aged to older dogs and, rarely, cats.
Treatment - No specific therapy is typically required, as the condition is usually self-limiting.
- Supportive care: - Nutritional support via syringe feeding, esophagostomy tube, or assisted feeding if needed.
- Hydration: Maintain with subcutaneous or IV fluids if the patient is unable to drink.
- Eye lubrication (e.g., artificial tears TID to QID) if there is concurrent facial nerve involvement leading to decreased blink reflex.
Most patients recover spontaneously within 2-4 weeks, although full recovery may take up to 2-3 months. The prognosis is generally favorable, but monitoring for aspiration and secondary complications is important in severely affected animals.

Bordetella bronchiseptica Infection Snoring, inspiratory dyspnea, hemoptysis, sneezing, nasal discharge, and signs of upper airway obstruction such as laryngeal edema or stridor are the most prominent symptoms. Bordetella bronchiseptica is a gram-negative coccobacillus associated with upper respiratory tract infections in dogs and cats. It plays a central role in canine infectious tracheobronchitis (kennel cough) and may be a component of feline upper respiratory disease complex. It can cause severe laryngitis, tracheitis, or pneumonia, especially in immunocompromised animals.
Treatment - Antibiotics: - Doxycycline 5 mg/kg (PO BID) for 7-10 days is the first-line treatment.
- Alternatives:- Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg (PO or SC SID) or Clavamox (amoxicillin-clavulanate) 12.5-25 mg/kg (PO BID).
- Antitussives (dogs only, if cough is non-productive and airway is clear):
- Butorphanol 0.2-0.5 mg/kg (PO or IM BID).
- Hydrocodone bitartrate 0.22 mg/kg (PO BID to TID).
- Anti-inflammatory therapy:
- Prednisone 0.5-1 mg/kg (PO SID) for 3-5 days if laryngeal edema or tracheal inflammation is severe.
- Supportive care:
- Nebulization and coupage can help mobilize secretions.
- Ensure adequate hydration and nutrition.
- Severe upper airway obstruction:
- Temporary tracheostomy may be required in cases of laryngeal collapse or edema.
Vaccination is available and recommended for high-risk animals (e.g., boarding, shelters). Prognosis is generally good with appropriate care, though co-infections may complicate recovery.

Chronic Ulcerative ColitisChronic large bowel diarrhea with mucus and fresh blood, tenesmus, urgency, and frequent defecation are the most prominent symptoms. Chronic ulcerative colitis is an inflammatory disease of the colon, often immune-mediated, that results in mucosal ulceration, infiltration by inflammatory cells, and altered motility. Boxers and French Bulldogs are predisposed, but other breeds may be affected. Dietary intolerance, dysbiosis, or infection may contribute.
Treatment - Antibiotics: - Cefotaxime 30 mg/kg (IV, IM, or SC BID).
- Ceftiofur 2.2 mg/kg (SC SID).
- Cefuroxime 10–12 mg/kg (IV BID).
- Antispasmodic:
- Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg (PO or IM BID).
- Anti-inflammatory therapy:
- Prednisone 1–2 mg/kg (PO SID), especially for immune-mediated cases.
- Gastrointestinal protectants:
- Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia) 10 mL/dog (PO SID) for stool softening and pH modulation.
- Additional therapy:
- Sulfasalazine 10–15 mg/kg (PO TID) for 3–4 weeks, taper gradually (avoid in cats or monitor closely).
- Dietary management:
- Transition to a novel protein or hydrolyzed protein diet is strongly recommended.
Prognosis depends on the severity of inflammation, response to treatment, and ability to manage dietary or environmental triggers. Chronic relapses may occur.

Histoplasmosis in Dogs (Systemic Mycosis)Diarrhea with tenesmus and fresh blood, melena (black tarry feces), fever, severe weight loss, tachypnea, dyspnea, blindness, oral ulceration, lameness, nodular skin lesions, and a history of exposure to bird or bat feces are the most prominent symptoms. Histoplasmosis is a systemic fungal infection caused by Histoplasma capsulatum, a dimorphic fungus found in soil enriched with bird or bat droppings. Infection occurs via inhalation or ingestion of spores. It often begins in the lungs or gastrointestinal tract and disseminates to other organs. Dogs often show GI signs, while cats more frequently exhibit respiratory or disseminated forms.
Treatment - Antifungal therapy:
- Itraconazole 10 mg/kg (PO SID) for at least 4–6 months, or 1 month beyond clinical resolution.
- Fluconazole 5–10 mg/kg (PO BID) may be used as an alternative, especially if CNS involvement is suspected.
- Severe or disseminated cases:
- Amphotericin B (liposomal or lipid-complex preferred) at 0.5–1 mg/kg (IV EOD to twice weekly), total cumulative dose not exceeding 8–10 mg/kg.
- Must be used with close renal monitoring due to nephrotoxicity risk.
- Corticosteroids:
- Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg (PO SID) may be used short-term in animals with significant pulmonary inflammation or airway obstruction (e.g., mediastinal lymphadenopathy). Taper gradually.
- Supportive care:
- IV fluids, nutritional support, oxygen therapy if dyspneic.
- Monitor hepatic enzymes during long-term azole therapy.
Prognosis is guarded to good depending on severity and organ involvement. Early diagnosis and adherence to long-term therapy improve outcomes. Zoonotic risk is minimal from affected animals, but caution is warranted with contaminated soil or feces.

Bacterial MeningoencephalitisAcute onset of fever, vomiting, bradycardia, anorexia, shock, hypotension, hyperesthesia, cervical pain and rigidity, seizures, and cranial nerve deficits are the most prominent symptoms. Bacterial Meningoencephalitis is inflammation of the brain and meninges caused by bacterial pathogens. Common causative organisms include Pasteurella, Staphylococcus, Actinomyces, Nocardia, Streptococcus, Klebsiella spp., and Escherichia coli. Entry may occur via hematogenous spread, direct extension from otitis or sinusitis, or penetrating trauma.
Treatment - Antibiotic therapy:
- Chloramphenicol 50 mg/kg (PO, IV, IM, or SC BID) — excellent CNS penetration.
- Metronidazole 10-15 mg/kg (PO or IV TID) — useful for anaerobic coverage.
- Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg (IV or PO SID) — effective against gram-negative aerobes.
- Trimethoprim-sulfonamide 15 mg/kg (PO BID) — broad-spectrum including CNS penetration.
- Azithromycin 8-10 mg/kg (PO SID) may be considered for atypical or resistant infections.
- Adjunctive therapies:
- Cytarabine (Cytosine arabinoside) 50 mg/m² (SC or IV q12h for 2 days, repeated every 3 weeks) if immune-mediated component is suspected or inflammation is severe.
- Prednisone 0.5-1 mg/kg (PO SID) for short-term anti-inflammatory use — consider only if no active bacterial replication or after initial antibiotics.
- Supportive care:
- Fluid therapy, anti-emetics, seizure control (e.g., levetiracetam or diazepam), nutritional support.
CSF analysis and advanced imaging (MRI) are essential for diagnosis. Culture and sensitivity guide targeted therapy. Prognosis is guarded and depends on the rapidity of intervention and extent of CNS involvement.

Feline Leukemia Virus Infection (FeLV) Fever, depression, persistent diarrhea, generalized lymphadenopathy, dyspnea, uremia, ataxia, paralysis or seizures, hemolytic anemia, infertility, abortion, and osteochondromatosis are the most prominent symptoms. Lymphoma is a common associated neoplasia. Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) is a single-stranded RNA retrovirus in the family Retroviridae. It causes chronic progressive disease in cats, including immunosuppression, bone marrow suppression, and neoplastic conditions such as lymphoma and leukemia. Transmission is via saliva, nasal secretions, and vertical routes. Persistent infection may lead to multisystemic signs due to immune dysfunction or neoplasia.
Treatment - Supportive therapy:
- Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5-25 mg/kg PO BID) to prevent or treat secondary infections.
- Blood transfusions for severe anemia (PCV <15%).
- Hematologic support:
- Exogenous erythropoietin: 100 U/kg (SC), three times per week for anemia due to bone marrow suppression.
- Immunomodulatory therapy:
- Human recombinant interferon-α (rHuIFN-α): 30 IU (PO SID) on alternating weeks has been shown to improve clinical condition and survival.
- Staphylococcus aureus protein A (experimental): 10 mg/kg (IP) twice weekly for neutropenia or immune modulation, though this use is not widely practiced in clinical settings.
- Antiviral drugs (experimental or off-label):
- AZT (Zidovudine): 5-10 mg/kg (PO BID) may be used in FeLV-infected cats with progressive disease, particularly those with neurologic or hematologic signs (monitor for anemia).
No definitive cure exists. Infected cats should be kept indoors, vaccinated against other infectious diseases, and tested regularly. Prognosis is variable depending on disease stage. Euthanasia is not automatically recommended if the cat is stable and well-supported.

Feline BabesiosisLethargy, anorexia, generalized weakness, pale mucous membranes, and intermittent or persistent diarrhea are the most prominent symptoms.Feline babesiosis is a rare but potentially serious tick-borne disease caused by intraerythrocytic protozoa of the genus Babesia, particularly Babesia felis. It is more commonly reported in certain endemic regions. Infection leads to hemolytic anemia due to erythrocyte destruction, and may also result in icterus and systemic inflammatory responses. Diagnosis is confirmed via blood smear, PCR, or serology.
Treatment - Antiprotozoal therapy:
- Primaquine phosphate: 0.5 mg/kg (PO SID) for 3 days or 1 mg/cat (IM) every 36 hours for 6 doses.
- Alternatively, Atovaquone (13.3 mg/kg PO TID) with Azithromycin (10 mg/kg PO SID) for 10 days may be used (especially in refractory or severe cases, though evidence in cats is limited).
- Supportive care:
- IV fluid therapy for dehydration and electrolyte imbalances.
- Blood transfusion may be necessary in cases of severe anemia (PCV <15%).
- Tick control:
- Administer appropriate ectoparasiticides (e.g., fluralaner, selamectin-sarolaner) to eliminate vectors and prevent reinfection.
Prognosis depends on the severity of anemia and response to treatment. Early intervention improves outcomes significantly.

Periodontitis and GingivitisHalitosis, excessive salivation, dysphagia, and visible attachment loss around one or more teeth are the most prominent symptoms. Periodontitis and gingivitis in dogs and cats are primarily caused by plaque accumulation and bacterial colonization, especially by Staphylococcus and Streptococcus spp. Chronic inflammation leads to progressive destruction of periodontal ligaments and alveolar bone. If untreated, it can result in systemic infections affecting the heart, liver, and kidneys.
Treatment - Dental cleaning and debridement:
- Professional ultrasonic scaling (above and below the gumline) followed by tooth polishing.
- Irrigation of periodontal pockets with chlorhexidine 0.12%.
- Antibiotics:
- Clarithromycin 20 mg/kg (PO BID) for 7-10 days.
- Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg (PO or SC SID) if anaerobic or gram-negative coverage is needed.
- Local antimicrobial therapy:
- Doxycycline gel (e.g., Doxirobe®) applied into the cleaned periodontal pockets.
- Surgical intervention:
- Extraction of teeth with advanced mobility or irreversible bone loss.
- Supportive care:
- Analgesics (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID) post-procedure.
- Soft diet for 5-7 days after dental extraction or scaling.
Daily brushing and regular dental prophylaxis are essential for prevention. Early intervention offers the best long-term outcome.

Acute Colitis in DogsAcute onset of frequent small-volume defecation, often accompanied by straining (tenesmus), fresh blood, and mucus is the hallmark sign. Other prominent symptoms include discomfort (e.g., pacing, drooling), vomiting, mild inappetence, and perineal staining with blood or mucus. Affected animals typically remain bright and alert. Acute colitis refers to inflammation of the large intestine, often involving the colon and sometimes the rectum or cecum. Causes include abrupt dietary changes, ingestion of spoiled or inappropriate food, parasitic infections (e.g., Trichuris vulpis), bacterial overgrowth (Clostridium perfringens type A), protozoal agents (e.g., Giardia), and stress-related dysbiosis.
Treatment - Supportive care:
- Withhold food for 12-24 hours (in adult dogs), allow access to fresh water.
- After fasting, reintroduce a bland, highly digestible, low-residue diet (e.g., boiled chicken and rice or commercial GI prescription diet) for 3-5 days.
- Antimotility agents (dogs only, not recommended for infectious causes):
- Loperamide 0.2 mg/kg (PO BID).
- Antisecretory/anti-inflammatory agents:
- Bismuth subsalicylate 0.5–1 mL/kg (PO TID) for dogs.
- Antibiotics (if clostridial or protozoal infection is suspected):
- Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg (PO BID) for 5–7 days.
- Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg (PO BID) as needed.
- Antiparasitic therapy:
- Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg (PO SID for 3–5 days) for Trichuris and other nematodes.
- Praziquantel 5–10 mg/kg (PO once) for cestodes.
Prognosis is typically excellent with appropriate treatment and dietary modification. Recurrence is common if underlying causes are not addressed (e.g., diet, parasites).

Candidiasis in DogsMost prominent symptoms include oral lesions (white plaques on the tongue, palate, or gingiva), halitosis, dysphagia, and salivation. It often occurs in immunocompromised or debilitated dogs, especially puppies or animals receiving prolonged antibiotic therapy or corticosteroids. Candidiasis is a fungal infection caused by Candida albicans, a commensal yeast that can become opportunistic in the oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract, or mucocutaneous junctions under conditions of immunosuppression or dysbiosis.
Treatment - Systemic antifungals:
- Flucytosine 25–50 mg/kg (PO or IV q8h) for 10–14 days (monitor for bone marrow suppression with prolonged use).
- Topical antifungals:
- Nystatin oral suspension: 100,000 units (PO q6h), swish and swallow if tolerated, for 7–10 days.
- Nystatin ointment or cream applied to mucosal lesions or skin, BID to TID.
- Adjunct therapy:
- Discontinue or reduce antibiotics/steroids if possible.
- Maintain oral hygiene; consider chlorhexidine mouth rinses (0.12% solution, swabbed BID).
Prognosis is favorable with early treatment and correction of underlying immunosuppressive conditions. Chronic or disseminated candidiasis may require systemic azoles (e.g., itraconazole at 5 mg/kg PO SID).

NeosporosisThe most prominent symptoms include progressive ascending paralysis (especially of the pelvic limbs), hyperextension, ataxia, and muscle atrophy. Additional signs may include polymyositis, dysphagia, head tilt, and ulcerative dermatitis. In adult dogs, pneumonia and neurological signs may occur. Congenital infection in puppies is often fatal. Neosporosis is caused by the protozoan Neospora caninum, which induces neuromuscular disease, myositis, and occasionally encephalitis or reproductive failure. It is transmitted transplacentally or via ingestion of contaminated material. Dogs are definitive hosts, and the disease has worldwide distribution.
Treatment - Antiprotozoal therapy:
- Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine 15–20 mg/kg (PO BID) + Pyrimethamine 1 mg/kg (PO SID) for 3–4 weeks.
- Clindamycin 10–12 mg/kg (PO TID) for 4–6 weeks is an effective alternative or adjunct therapy.
- Supportive care:
- Physical therapy to prevent contractures.
- Nutritional support and hydration.
- Adjunctive treatments (optional):
- Bromhexine 2 mg/kg (PO BID) or 8 mg/dog (IM BID) may assist in managing respiratory signs when pneumonia is present.
Early and aggressive treatment is crucial to prevent permanent neurological damage. Prognosis is guarded, especially in congenital infections with severe neurological involvement.

Nutritional Myodegeneration The most prominent symptoms include generalized weakness, difficulty rising, a stiff gait, and painful or swollen muscles. In severe cases, paraparesis, dysphagia, dysphonia, and sudden death—especially in puppies due to myocardial necrosis—may occur. Nutritional myodegeneration, analogous to white muscle disease in large animals, is caused by a deficiency of selenium and/or vitamin E. It most often affects young, growing animals fed a deficient diet and leads to degeneration of skeletal and cardiac muscle.
Treatment - Vitamin and mineral supplementation:
- Vitamin E 10–20 IU/kg (PO SID to BID).
- Selenium 0.01–0.05 mg/kg (PO SID) or 0.01 mg/kg (IM once weekly), based on formulation and selenium status.
- Supportive care:
- Reduce physical activity during muscle recovery.
- Provide a complete, balanced diet appropriate for the animal's age and species.
- Prognosis:
- Prognosis is favorable with early intervention and if cardiac involvement is absent.
- If myocardial or intercostal muscle damage is present, prognosis is poor despite treatment.
Prevention through balanced commercial diets or supplementation in at-risk regions is recommended.

Eclampsia (Hypocalcemia) The most prominent symptoms include muscle tremors, tetany, stiff gait, dilated pupils, inability to rise, ataxia, disorientation, and seizures. In severe cases, collapse, hyperthermia, and coma may occur. Most commonly seen in small breed lactating dogs nursing large litters. Eclampsia, also known as postpartum hypocalcemia or puerperal tetany, is an acute, life-threatening condition caused by a sudden drop in blood calcium levels during peak lactation. It is most frequent in small-breed dogs, especially during the first 2–3 weeks postpartum.
Treatment - Emergency stabilization:
- 10% Calcium gluconate 0.5–1.5 mL/kg (slow IV over 10–20 minutes with ECG monitoring).
- Monitor for bradycardia or arrhythmias.
- Anticonvulsant (if seizures):
- Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg (IV slowly) or Midazolam 0.2–0.5 mg/kg (IV or intranasal).
- Sodium pentobarbital only if seizures are unresponsive, at 3–5 mg/kg IV to effect.
- Muscle relaxant (if severe tetany):
- Dantrolene 1–2 mg/kg (IV or PO BID if needed).
- Maintenance therapy:
- Oral calcium: Calcium carbonate or calcium gluconate 50–100 mg elemental Ca/kg/day divided BID to TID.
- Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol): 10–20 IU/kg/day PO (monitor serum calcium weekly).
- Supportive care:
- Wean puppies temporarily to reduce lactational demand.
- Provide IV fluids with dextrose if anorexia or dehydration is present.
Prognosis is excellent with early treatment. Prevent recurrence by supplementing calcium in future pregnancies and monitoring postpartum females closely.

Anal Sac Neoplasia (Rectal Neoplasia)The most prominent symptoms include a firm, often unilateral perianal mass, excessive licking of the anal region, dyschezia (painful defecation), tenesmus (straining), and constipation. In some cases, systemic signs such as lethargy or vomiting may occur due to hypercalcemia. Anal sac adenocarcinoma is an aggressive malignant tumor arising from the apocrine glands of the anal sac. It is locally invasive and frequently metastasizes to regional lymph nodes (e.g., sublumbar) and lungs. Paraneoplastic hypercalcemia occurs in up to 50% of cases, contributing to renal dysfunction.
Treatment - Surgical treatment:
- Wide surgical excision of the tumor along with ipsilateral or bilateral sublumbar lymph node removal is the mainstay treatment.
- Chemotherapy:
- Mitoxantrone 5-6 mg/m² (IV every 3 weeks) is commonly used postoperatively.
- Carboplatin 300 mg/m² (IV every 3 weeks) is an alternative option.
- Radiation therapy:
- Considered in cases of incomplete surgical excision or non-resectable tumors.
- Treatment of hypercalcemia:
- IV fluids (0.9% NaCl) at 2–3 times maintenance rate to promote calciuresis.
- Furosemide 1–2 mg/kg (IV q6–8h) after rehydration.
- Bisphosphonates (e.g., Pamidronate 1–2 mg/kg IV over 2 hours every 3–4 weeks) for long-term calcium control.
- Monitoring and prognosis:
- Regular thoracic radiographs and abdominal ultrasound for metastasis surveillance.
- Prognosis depends on metastatic status; median survival improves significantly with combined surgery and chemotherapy.
Early detection, aggressive surgical management, and adjunct therapies significantly improve long-term outcomes in affected dogs.

Immune-Mediated Hemolytic Anemia (IMHA)The most prominent symptoms include acute onset of lethargy, pale mucous membranes, weakness, jaundice (icterus), tachycardia, tachypnea, dark-colored urine (hemoglobinuria), fever, and, in some cases, spontaneous bleeding or petechiae. Splenomegaly may be present on physical examination. Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia is an autoimmune disorder in which the body produces antibodies (primarily IgG and IgM) against its own red blood cells, leading to their destruction. It may be primary (idiopathic) or secondary to infections, neoplasia, or drug exposure. The disease can progress rapidly and may be life-threatening if untreated.
Treatment - Immunosuppressive therapy:
- Prednisolone 2 mg/kg/day (PO, divided BID), tapered slowly over weeks to months based on hematologic response.
- Azathioprine 2 mg/kg (PO SID for 7 days), followed by 0.5–1 mg/kg/day as maintenance (dogs only; contraindicated in cats).
- Mycophenolate mofetil 10–20 mg/kg (PO BID) can be used as a second-line or adjunct immunosuppressive agent.
- Cyclosporine A 5–10 mg/kg (PO BID) for cases refractory to corticosteroids.
- Antithrombotic therapy:
- Clopidogrel 1–2 mg/kg (PO SID) to prevent thromboembolic events.
- Aspirin 0.5–1 mg/kg (PO SID) may be considered, although less effective than clopidogrel.
- Unfractionated heparin 75–100 IU/kg (SC TID) or enoxaparin 1 mg/kg (SC BID) for patients with high thrombotic risk.
- Supportive care:

- IV fluids for dehydration or hemoglobinuria-associated renal risk.
- Gastroprotectants (e.g., omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO SID) during corticosteroid therapy.
- Monitoring and prognosis:
- Monitor PCV/hematocrit, reticulocyte count, bilirubin, and coagulation parameters regularly.
- Prognosis varies; survival improves significantly with early diagnosis and intensive immunosuppressive treatment.
Timely and aggressive treatment is essential to reduce mortality. Long-term therapy may be needed to prevent relapse.

Perianal AdenomaThe most prominent symptoms include firm, often solitary or multiple perianal masses, commonly found in older intact male dogs. These lesions may occur around the anus, tailhead, prepuce, and inguinal region. Clinical signs include hematochezia (blood in feces), excessive licking of the perianal area, ulceration with secondary infection, and foul-smelling discharge. These tumors are typically slow-growing and benign but can become ulcerated and infected if left untreated. Perianal adenomas are benign tumors originating from perianal (hepatoid) glands and are androgen-dependent. They are rare in females but common in intact males over 8 years of age. Malignant transformation into perianal adenocarcinomas is uncommon but possible. Differential diagnoses include perianal adenocarcinoma, anal sac adenocarcinoma, and infectious or inflammatory perianal conditions.
Treatment - Definitive therapy:
- Castration is the treatment of choice in intact males and often leads to spontaneous regression of tumors within weeks.
- Surgical excision:
- Indicated for large, ulcerated, or persistent tumors despite castration.
- Marginal excision with primary closure; recurrence is uncommon if androgen source is eliminated.
- Adjunctive therapies:
- Cryosurgery may be used for small lesions but is rarely employed due to tissue damage risks.
- Radiation therapy is effective for non-resectable or recurrent tumors, though high in cost.
- Chemotherapy (reserved for recurrent, aggressive, or malignant transformation cases):
- Carboplatin: 300 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks (dose adjusted based on neutrophil count).
- Levamisole: Immunomodulatory agent; less commonly used due to limited efficacy. Dose: 2.2 mg/kg PO once daily for 3–5 days/week.
- Monitoring and prognosis:
- Post-castration monitoring of mass size is important.
- Prognosis is excellent with surgical removal and neutering; recurrence is rare if androgenic stimulation is eliminated.
Perianal adenomas are usually benign and androgen-driven, making castration highly effective in most cases. Surgical intervention may be necessary in complicated presentations.

Acute PancreatitisThe most prominent symptoms include acute vomiting, cranial abdominal pain (often with the animal assuming a "prayer position"), anorexia, lethargy, fever, and dehydration. Additional signs may include diarrhea, tachypnea, tachycardia, weakness, icterus, abdominal distension or mass, petechiation, and signs of systemic inflammatory response such as obtundation or shock. Acute pancreatitis in dogs results from autodigestion of pancreatic tissue due to premature activation of digestive enzymes. It is often triggered by high-fat diets, corticosteroid use, hyperlipidemia, trauma, or metabolic disorders. Inflammatory mediators released from the pancreas can result in systemic complications, including disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), renal injury, and multi-organ failure.
Treatment - Fluid therapy:
- Administer isotonic crystalloids such as Lactated Ringer’s solution at 2–3 times maintenance (60–90 mL/kg/day) IV to restore perfusion and correct dehydration.
- Supplement potassium as needed.
- Analgesia:
- Butorphanol: 0.2–0.4 mg/kg SC/IV q6–8h.
- Fentanyl CRI: 3–5 µg/kg/h for severe cases. Consider ketamine or lidocaine CRI as adjuncts.
- Antiemetics:
- Maropitant: 1 mg/kg SC or IV q24h.
- Ondansetron: 0.5 mg/kg IV q8–12h if vomiting persists.
- Acid suppression:
- Omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO BID, especially if GI ulceration is suspected.
- Nutritional support:
- Initiate early enteral feeding within 24–48h using a low-fat, easily digestible diet.
- Nasoesophageal or esophagostomy tube may be used in anorexic dogs.
- Antibiotics:
- Not routinely indicated unless there is confirmed pancreatic infection or aspiration pneumonia.
- Surgical intervention:
- Reserved for cases with pancreatic abscesses, necrosis, or pseudocyst formation requiring drainage or debridement.
- Monitoring and prognosis:
- Monitor electrolytes, hydration, and pain levels daily.
- Prognosis is guarded in severe cases but improves significantly with early, aggressive supportive care.
Prompt recognition and comprehensive supportive care are key to improving outcomes in dogs with acute pancreatitis. Intensive management may be required for complications such as DIC, renal failure, or systemic inflammation.

Chronic PancreatitisThe most prominent symptoms include chronic intermittent vomiting, anorexia, abdominal discomfort, weight loss, and intermittent diarrhea. Affected animals may also exhibit intermittent fever and signs of lethargy or reduced appetite. Cats often show more subtle signs like inappetence and weight loss, while dogs may present with episodic gastrointestinal distress. Chronic pancreatitis is a long-standing inflammatory condition of the pancreas characterized by irreversible histological damage. It often follows repeated acute episodes and may be associated with dietary indiscretion, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, hyperadrenocorticism in dogs, or conditions like FIP, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), or cholangitis in cats. Chronic inflammation can lead to pancreatic fibrosis, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), and secondary diabetes mellitus.
Treatment - Nutritional management:
- Dogs: Low-fat, highly digestible diets to reduce pancreatic stimulation.
- Cats: Moderate-fat diets with novel protein or hydrolyzed protein sources. Feed frequent small meals.
- Anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive therapy (if immune-mediated suspected):
- Prednisolone: 0.5–1.0 mg/kg PO SID in dogs; 1–2 mg/kg PO SID in cats. Taper based on response.
- Antiemetics and gastroprotectants:
- Maropitant: 1 mg/kg PO or SC SID.
- Ondansetron: 0.5–1 mg/kg PO or IV q12h if vomiting persists.
- Omeprazole: 0.5–1.0 mg/kg PO SID as needed for gastric ulcer prevention.
- Analgesia:
- Buprenorphine: 0.01–0.03 mg/kg SL (cats) or IM (dogs) q8–12h.
- Butorphanol: 0.2–0.4 mg/kg SC q6–8h in dogs.
- Management of underlying or contributing diseases:
- Control of hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, or concurrent IBD/cholangitis is essential.
- Monitoring and follow-up:
- Serial abdominal ultrasound, pancreatic lipase (Spec cPL/fPL), and monitoring of clinical signs.
Chronic pancreatitis requires long-term, multimodal management. Nutritional support, control of flare-ups, and addressing underlying causes are key to improving quality of life. Prognosis varies depending on the severity of fibrosis and the development of complications such as EPI or diabetes.

Acute Pancreatitis in CatsThe most prominent symptoms include vomiting, anorexia or inappetence, weight loss, lethargy, and dehydration. Cats may also show signs such as diarrhea, icterus (jaundice), hypothermia, dyspnea (labored breathing), or abdominal discomfort. Clinical signs in cats are often nonspecific, making diagnosis challenging without laboratory and imaging support. Acute pancreatitis in cats involves sudden inflammation and autodigestion of pancreatic tissue due to premature activation of digestive enzymes. It is commonly associated with risk factors such as high-fat diets, drug reactions (e.g., organophosphates, azathioprine), hepatic lipidosis, inflammatory bowel disease, trauma, toxoplasmosis, and concurrent conditions like hepatic or intestinal inflammation (triaditis). The condition may be idiopathic in many cases.
Treatment - Supportive care:
- Fluid therapy: Lactated Ringer’s Solution or balanced crystalloids IV at 2.5x maintenance rate, adjusted to restore hydration and correct electrolyte imbalances.
- Monitor for hypokalemia; supplement potassium as needed (e.g., KCl 20-40 mEq/L added to fluids).
- Nutritional support:
- Early enteral feeding with small, frequent meals is encouraged once vomiting subsides.
- Use easily digestible, low-fat diets; nasoesophageal or esophagostomy tubes may be used if anorexia persists >48 hours.
- Pain management:
- Butorphanol: 0.2–0.4 mg/kg SC or IV every 6–8 hours.
- Buprenorphine: 0.01–0.02 mg/kg buccally or IM every 8–12 hours (especially in cats).
- Antiemetic therapy:
- Metoclopramide: 0.2–0.4 mg/kg SC TID or as CRI (1–2 mg/kg/day).
- Ondansetron: 0.1–0.5 mg/kg IV or PO every 12–24 hours.
- Dolasetron: 0.6 mg/kg IV SID as an alternative to ondansetron.
- Gastroprotectants:
- Famotidine: 0.5–1.0 mg/kg IV or PO SID.
- Omeprazole: 0.5–1.0 mg/kg PO SID.
- Monitoring:
- Serial evaluation of serum feline pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity (fPLI), abdominal ultrasound, hydration status, and clinical signs.
- Prognosis:
- Prognosis is variable; mild cases recover with aggressive supportive care, while severe cases with systemic complications (e.g., DIC, hepatic lipidosis, SIRS) carry guarded prognosis.
Prompt diagnosis, supportive therapy, and proactive nutritional and pain management are critical in the treatment of feline acute pancreatitis. Due to vague clinical signs, a high index of suspicion is necessary for early intervention.

HypoglycemiaThe most prominent symptoms of hypoglycemia include weakness, incoordination (ataxia), tremors, seizures, mental dullness or depression, collapse, increased appetite, and abnormal or bizarre behavior. Severe or prolonged hypoglycemia may lead to cortical blindness, permanent neurologic damage, or death. Peripheral nerve demyelination may be observed in chronic cases. Hypoglycemia is defined as a persistent serum glucose concentration below 60 mg/dL, confirmed by repeated assays. Unlike humans, healthy dogs and cats rarely become hypoglycemic solely from fasting. It can be caused by insulinoma, xylitol toxicity, sepsis, juvenile hypoglycemia (especially in toy breeds), liver failure, hypoadrenocorticism, or iatrogenic insulin overdose in diabetic animals.
Treatment - Emergency management:
- 50% Dextrose: Dilute 1:1 with sterile water or saline and administer 0.5–1.0 mL/kg IV slowly over 2–3 minutes.
- Follow with CRI of 5% dextrose in fluids (e.g., D5W or add 25–50 mL of 50% dextrose to 1 L of fluids to maintain glucose levels).
- Hormonal support:
- Glucagon: 50–150 ng/kg/min as a constant rate infusion for refractory hypoglycemia (especially insulinoma cases).
- Steroidal support:
- Prednisone: 0.5–1.0 mg/kg PO SID for supportive management or suspected hypoadrenocorticism.
- Hyperglycemic agents (for chronic or insulinoma-associated cases):
- Diazoxide: 5 mg/kg PO q8h, titrate up to 20 mg/kg PO q8h. Monitor blood glucose frequently.
- Seizure control:
- Midazolam: 0.2 mg/kg IV or intranasal for active seizures.
- Gabapentin: 10–20 mg/kg PO q8–12h for neurologic stabilization post-episode.
- Butorphanol: Not a primary treatment for seizures; may be used for mild sedation if needed: 0.2–0.4 mg/kg IM.
- Investigate underlying causes:
- Check for hypoadrenocorticism (Addison’s disease), liver function (e.g., bile acids), insulinoma (via insulin:glucose ratio), and rule out sepsis or toxicity (e.g., xylitol ingestion).
- Monitoring and prognosis:
- Monitor blood glucose every 2–4 hours during hospitalization.
- Prognosis depends on underlying etiology; insulinoma carries a guarded prognosis, while juvenile or stress-related hypoglycemia has an excellent outcome with prompt care.
Prompt identification and correction of hypoglycemia are critical to preventing neurologic injury. In cases of persistent or unexplained hypoglycemia, further diagnostics for endocrine or neoplastic causes are essential.

Parainfluenza Virus-5 Infection (Canine Parainfluenza Virus, CPIV)The most prominent symptoms of CPIV infection primarily affect the respiratory tract and may include coughing, nasal discharge, sneezing, and fever. However, in rare cases, especially in immunocompromised or co-infected animals, systemic or neurologic signs may occur. These include ataxia, seizures, rhythmic muscle contractions (myoclonus), and in severe cases, signs of hemorrhagic enteritis. Canine Parainfluenza Virus type 5 (CPIV-5) is a member of the Paramyxoviridae family and is a common contributor to canine infectious respiratory disease complex (CIRDC), also known as kennel cough. Though typically restricted to the upper respiratory tract, emerging research suggests rare systemic or neurologic involvement in certain populations or coinfections (e.g., canine distemper virus, Bordetella bronchiseptica). In cats, CPIV is not a primary pathogen but may be misidentified or co-isolated in upper respiratory infections.
Treatment - Supportive care (mainstay of treatment):
- Hydration: Maintain hydration with balanced isotonic crystalloids (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s or Normosol-R) as needed based on fluid deficit.
- Nutritional support: Provide palatable, high-calorie food; feeding tubes if inappetence persists.
- Antitussives (for non-productive coughs):
- Hydrocodone: 0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q6–12h in dogs.
- Antibiotics (if secondary bacterial infection is suspected):
- Doxycycline: 5 mg/kg PO or IV q12h for 7–10 days.
- Anticonvulsants (for seizure control in neurologic cases):
- Gabapentin: 10–20 mg/kg PO q8–12h; total daily dose of up to 30 mg/kg divided BID is tolerated in dogs and cats.
- Levetiracetam: 20 mg/kg PO or IV q8h in acute cases.
- Immunization (prevention):
- CPIV is included in most multivalent canine vaccines (DA2PP or DHPP). Intranasal and injectable forms are available.
- Monitoring and prognosis:
- Most cases recover with supportive care in 7–10 days. Prognosis is excellent for mild respiratory disease, but guarded in animals with neurologic complications or co-infections.
Although CPIV is primarily a respiratory pathogen, rare neurologic or systemic signs may develop in immunosuppressed or co-infected dogs. Early vaccination and good kennel management are key preventive strategies.

Female Fertility DefectThe most prominent symptoms include decreased fertility, irregular estrous cycles, prolonged anestrus, and reduced ovulation rates. Affected animals may exhibit failure to conceive despite mating or early embryonic loss. Female fertility defects in dogs and cats can result from hormonal imbalances, ovarian cysts, luteal insufficiency, or uterine pathology. Other contributing factors include poor timing of breeding, systemic illness, and nutritional deficiencies. Endocrine evaluation (e.g., progesterone, LH, FSH) and reproductive tract imaging are critical for diagnosis.
Treatment - Hormonal therapy:
- Buserelin: 4 μg/dog IM every 24–48 hours for 3–5 doses to induce ovulation via GnRH stimulation.
- Estradiol benzoate: 0.1 mg/kg IM or SC on days 3, 5, and 7 post-mating to support implantation (use cautiously due to potential side effects).
- Cycle monitoring:
- Serial progesterone measurements to confirm ovulation and luteal function.
- Additional management:
- Address underlying causes (e.g., hypothyroidism, nutritional issues, infection).
- Breeding timing optimization:
- Vaginal cytology and progesterone assays to ensure accurate mating timing.
Successful treatment of fertility defects depends on accurate cycle tracking and correction of underlying conditions. Hormonal therapy may improve ovulatory response and conception rates in selected cases.

Canine Rotavirus InfectionThe most prominent symptoms include mild, self-limiting watery to mucoid diarrhea in puppies younger than 12 weeks of age. Affected pups are typically afebrile, though fever may occur in very young or immunocompromised individuals. Other signs include mild dehydration and lethargy. Canine rotavirus is a contagious viral enteritis primarily affecting neonatal puppies. It causes villous atrophy in the small intestine, leading to malabsorption and diarrhea. Coinfection with other enteric pathogens (e.g., parvovirus, coronavirus, Giardia) can worsen clinical outcomes. Transmission is fecal-oral, and environmental resistance is high.
Treatment - Supportive care:
- Fluid therapy: Oral rehydration or IV fluids (e.g., lactated Ringer's solution) to correct dehydration.
- Nutritional support with highly digestible diets during recovery.
- Antispasmodics (for diarrhea control):
- Butylscopolamine (Spanil):
- 0.1 mL/kg IV or IM BID (injectable formulation).
- 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID (oral or injectable dose based on product concentration).
- Antibiotics (only if secondary bacterial infection is suspected):
- Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID may be used cautiously.
- Monitoring and prevention:
- Maintain strict hygiene and isolate infected pups.
- No commercial vaccines are currently available for canine rotavirus.
Canine rotavirus infections are generally mild and self-limiting, with excellent prognosis when supportive care is provided. Prevention focuses on sanitation and minimizing exposure in young puppies.

Canine Chronic HepatitisThe most prominent symptoms include anorexia, lethargy, weight loss, vomiting, polyuria and polydipsia, ascites, jaundice, and weakness. It is more common in middle-aged female dogs (typically 5 to 6 years old) and may present with vague, progressive clinical signs. Chronic hepatitis in dogs is a persistent inflammatory liver disease that may be idiopathic or associated with copper accumulation, drug reactions, infections (e.g., leptospirosis), or autoimmune mechanisms. It often leads to hepatic fibrosis and cirrhosis if untreated. Definitive diagnosis requires liver biopsy.
Treatment - Anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive therapy:
- Prednisolone: 1 mg/kg PO once daily (taper based on response and ALT levels).
- Azathioprine: 1-2 mg/kg PO every 24-48 hours (used with caution; avoid in cats). Monitor CBC and liver enzymes.
- Hepatoprotective agents:
- Ursodiol (ursodeoxycholic acid): 10-15 mg/kg PO once daily or divided BID. Aids in bile flow and reduces inflammation.
- Vitamin E: 10 IU/kg PO SID (typical dose range: 50–400 IU depending on dog size). Acts as an antioxidant.
- Additional support:
- Dietary modification to liver-supportive diet (e.g., low copper, high-quality protein).
- Periodic monitoring of liver enzymes, bile acids, and coagulation profile.
Prognosis varies with the severity and cause. Early diagnosis and consistent treatment can stabilize or improve liver function over time. Copper-associated cases may require chelation therapy.

MastitisThe most prominent symptoms include swollen, firm, and painful mammary glands, fever (pyrexia), anorexia, lethargy, dehydration, and in severe cases, death of neonates due to toxemia or agalactia. Affected glands may feel warm or discolored, and purulent discharge may be present from the nipples. Mastitis is inflammation of the mammary glands, most commonly occurring during lactation due to ascending bacterial infection (e.g., Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., or E. coli). It can be acute or chronic, with potential for systemic illness or gland necrosis.
Treatment - Medical management:
- Antibiotics: Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5-25 mg/kg PO BID for 7–14 days or Cephalexin 20-30 mg/kg PO BID (based on culture & sensitivity).
- Analgesia: Buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV, IM, or transmucosal every 6-8 hours for pain relief.
- Supportive care:
- IV fluid therapy: 5% dextrose in lactated Ringer’s solution at 60-70 mL/kg/day IV for dogs and 40-50 mL/kg/day IV for cats, adjusted based on hydration and electrolyte status.
- Apply cold compresses to the affected gland(s) 2-3 times daily to reduce inflammation.
- Lactation management:
- Remove neonates and feed with commercial milk replacers to prevent further gland trauma.
- If needed, pharmacologic suppression of lactation using Cabergoline5 µg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days (preferred over estrogen/testosterone due to fewer side effects).
- Surgical intervention:
- Severely necrotic or abscessed glands may require surgical debridement or excision.
- Ovariohysterectomy is indicated in recurrent or non-responsive cases, especially if sepsis or systemic illness is present.
Prognosis is generally good with early and appropriate treatment. Delay in intervention may lead to gland necrosis, systemic illness, or sepsis. Culture and sensitivity testing guide targeted antibiotic therapy.

Congestive Heart Failure The most prominent symptoms include exercise intolerance, dyspnea, tachypnea, coughing (in dogs), anorexia, lethargy, cold extremities, jugular venous distention, and cardiac murmurs. In cats, signs may include open-mouth breathing, sudden hind limb paralysis (due to aortic thromboembolism), depression, vomiting, and palpable thyroid nodules in hyperthyroid-associated heart disease. Unlike dogs, cats rarely develop significant ascites. Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) results from the heart’s inability to maintain adequate cardiac output, leading to fluid accumulation in lungs (pulmonary edema), pleural space, or abdominal cavity. It can be due to mitral valve disease, dilated or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, or secondary to systemic conditions like hyperthyroidism in cats.
Treatment - Diuretics:
- Furosemide: 2-4 mg/kg IV/IM/SC initially, then 1-2 mg/kg PO BID to TID (dogs); 1-2 mg/kg IV or PO BID (cats). Adjust based on respiratory rate and renal parameters.
- Spironolactone: 1-2 mg/kg PO SID (often combined with furosemide for RAAS inhibition).
- ACE inhibitors:
- Enalapril: 0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO BID (dogs and cats).
- Benazepril: 0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO SID to BID. Preferred in cats due to hepatic/renal excretion.
- Positive inotropes (dogs):
- Pimobendan: 0.25-0.3 mg/kg PO BID (dogs only; contraindicated in cats). Improves survival in mitral valve disease and DCM.
- Digoxin: 0.003-0.005 mg/kg PO BID (dogs). Use with caution; monitor serum levels.
- Oxygen therapy:
- Provide in oxygen cage or mask during acute respiratory distress.
- Anti-thrombotics (cats):
- Clopidogrel: 18.75 mg/cat PO SID for prevention of thromboembolism.
- Additional therapies:
- Prednisolone: 0.5-1.0 mg/kg PO SID for 5-7 days only if inflammation or airway disease is concurrent. Not routinely used for CHF.
- Amiloride: Rarely used alone; included as part of combination diuretics like amiloride/hydrochlorothiazide in refractory cases.
Monitoring includes respiratory rate, renal values, electrolytes, and thoracic radiographs. Prognosis depends on the underlying cause and response to treatment. Long-term management is required with careful titration of medications.

Uterine AdenocarcinomaThe most prominent symptoms include hematuria or serosanguineous vaginal discharge, infertility, small litter size, stillbirths, and dystocia. In advanced cases, signs such as anorexia, dyspnea, abdominal distention (ascites), and depression may occur due to metastatic spread or secondary complications. Uterine adenocarcinoma is a malignant tumor arising from the endometrial lining, more commonly reported in older intact female dogs and rarely in cats. It may be locally invasive and metastasize to the lungs or peritoneum. Diagnosis typically involves imaging and histopathologic evaluation following surgical removal.
Treatment - Definitive treatment:
- Ovariohysterectomy (OVH): Gold standard in localized disease; provides both curative intent and symptom control.
- Chemotherapy (adjuvant, in cases with metastasis):
- Carboplatin: 300 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks. Adjust dose based on neutrophil count and renal function.
- Doxorubicin (alternative): 30 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks. Consider in aggressive or metastatic cases.
- Supportive care:
- Analgesia (e.g., Buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV/IM q8–12h).
- Management of ascites if present (e.g., furosemide 1-2 mg/kg IV q12h as needed).
- Prognosis:
- Guarded to poor if metastasis is present; fair to good with early surgical excision.
Prompt OVH remains the most effective intervention. Chemotherapy may extend survival in metastatic cases, but prognosis depends heavily on tumor spread.

Severe Hypertension in DogsThe most prominent symptoms include acute onset blindness (due to retinal detachment or hemorrhage) and coma in advanced cases. Other signs may include ataxia, seizures, epistaxis, and lethargy. Severe hypertension in dogs is often secondary to underlying conditions such as chronic kidney disease, hyperadrenocorticism, diabetes mellitus, or pheochromocytoma. It requires prompt management to prevent irreversible end-organ damage, especially to the eyes, brain, kidneys, and heart.
Treatment - First-line antihypertensives:
- Amlodipine: 0.1-0.25 mg/kg PO once daily. Titrate to response; highly effective in controlling systemic hypertension, especially ocular signs.
- Hydralazine HCl: 1-2 mg/kg PO BID. Used in hypertensive emergencies or if amlodipine response is inadequate.
- Adjunctive agents (used if underlying cause suspected):
- Enalapril: 0.25-1 mg/kg PO BID. Preferred if proteinuria or renal disease is present.
- Prazosin: 0.5-1 mg/kg PO BID (or 1-2 mg/dog PO BID). Especially helpful in pheochromocytoma-associated hypertension.
- Phenoxybenzamine: 0.25-1 mg/kg PO BID. Non-selective alpha-blocker; used in functional adrenal tumors like pheochromocytoma.
- Emergency/short-term control (hospitalized cases):
- Diazoxide: 5 mg/kg PO q8h, increase cautiously to 20 mg/kg q8h. Less commonly used due to side effects.
- Monitoring:

Hypertension must be addressed aggressively to prevent irreversible complications, especially ocular and neurologic damage. Amlodipine is the cornerstone of therapy, with adjunctive drugs based on comorbidities.

Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) The most prominent symptoms include progressive neurologic signs (e.g., coma, ataxia, seizures), ocular abnormalities (anterior uveitis, retinal changes), abdominal distention due to effusion (wet form), weight loss, fever unresponsive to antibiotics, and lethargy. Feline Infectious Peritonitis is a fatal immune-mediated disease caused by a mutated feline coronavirus. It exists in two main forms: effusive (wet) and non-effusive (dry), with the latter often presenting neurological or ocular involvement. It typically affects young cats under 2 years or immunocompromised individuals.
Treatment - Antiviral therapy (recommended for confirmed cases):
- GS-441524 (nucleoside analog): 4-6 mg/kg SC once daily for 84 days (neurologic cases may require 8-10 mg/kg). Now commercially available in some regions.
- Supportive therapy:
- Fluid therapy: 40-60 mL/kg/day IV with adjustment based on dehydration status (cats).
- Prednisolone: 1-2 mg/kg PO SID (if antiviral not available; controversial and palliative only).
- Anticonvulsants: (e.g., Gabapentin 5-10 mg/kg PO BID) in cases of seizures.
- Monitoring and prognosis:
- Prognosis was historically grave, but GS-441524 has shown significant remission rates (70-80%).
- Regular bloodwork (CBC, globulin levels) and monitoring for relapse are essential during treatment.
Early diagnosis and antiviral therapy offer the best outcomes. Effusive forms progress rapidly without intervention; dry forms with neurologic signs require higher antiviral dosing and intensive care.

Otitis ExternaThe most prominent symptoms include discharge from the external ear canal, head shaking, scratching or pawing at the ear, pain on ear manipulation, erythema, odor, and in chronic cases, thickening of the canal or neurologic signs (e.g., facial nerve paralysis, drooling, deafness). Otitis externa is inflammation of the external ear canal, often caused by allergies, parasites (e.g., Otodectes cynotis), foreign bodies, bacterial or fungal infections. Chronic or untreated cases may extend to the middle/inner ear and cause neurologic deficits.
Treatment - Topical therapy (after cleaning and cytology-guided selection):
- Fusidic acid 1%: 2-5 drops per ear BID (for gram-positive cocci; limited efficacy against gram-negatives).
- Framycetin (5 mg/g) + Nystatin + Dexamethasone combo: 2-5 drops/ear BID (broad-spectrum antibacterial/antifungal + anti-inflammatory).
- Gentle cleaning: Use ceruminolytic ear cleanser; dry thoroughly before medication.
- Massage: Gently massage ear base 15-30 seconds post-instillation to improve penetration.
- Systemic therapy (for severe or chronic cases):
- Prednisolone: 0.5-1 mg/kg PO SID for 5-7 days to reduce inflammation and edema.
- Antibiotics (if otitis media suspected): Based on culture and sensitivity (e.g., cephalexin 20-30 mg/kg PO BID).
- Additional management:
- Identify and treat underlying cause: atopy, food allergy, parasites, endocrine disease.
- Recheck after 7-14 days; recurrence common if predisposing factors persist.
Proper diagnosis, regular re-evaluation, and targeted therapy are key to managing chronic or recurrent otitis externa. Avoid empiric use of ototoxic agents in ruptured tympanic membranes.

Complete Intestinal Obstruction The most prominent symptoms include acute onset of vomiting, abdominal distention, anorexia, severe abdominal pain (manifested by restlessness, panting, prayer posture), hemorrhagic or watery diarrhea, and signs of systemic shock (e.g., depression, tachycardia, weak pulses). Complete intestinal obstruction is a life-threatening emergency caused by blockage of the intestinal lumen, preventing passage of ingesta or fluids. Surgical intervention is often required urgently to prevent necrosis, perforation, or sepsis.
Treatment - Stabilization:
- IV Fluids: Lactated Ringer's Solution or Plasmalyte at shock rate: 60-90 mL/kg IV (dogs), 40-60 mL/kg IV (cats).
- Colloids: Hetastarch 10-20 mL/kg IV over 1-2 hrs for hypovolemia or low oncotic pressure.
- Electrolytes: Supplement with potassium chloride (20-40 mEq/L) if hypokalemia is present.
- Antiemetics:
- Maropitant: 1 mg/kg SC SID (highly effective and commonly used).
- Ondansetron: 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV TID if maropitant alone is insufficient.
- Antibiotics:
- Broad-spectrum (pre-op and post-op): Ampicillin 20 mg/kg IV TID + Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IV SID.
- Surgical Management:
- Exploratory laparotomy: Identify and remove obstructive lesion (foreign body, mass, intussusception, etc.).
- Resection and anastomosis: If bowel viability is compromised.
- Post-operative care:
- Pain control with opioids (e.g., Methadone 0.2 mg/kg IV q4-6h), gastric protectants (e.g., omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO SID), and slow reintroduction of food after 24–48 hours.
Prompt surgical intervention and perioperative stabilization are critical to improving survival outcomes in complete obstruction cases.

Canine Idiopathic Vestibular Disease The most prominent symptoms typically occur in older dogs and include acute onset of head tilt, ataxia (uncoordinated movements), circling, falling or rolling to one side, and nystagmus (involuntary eye movement). Canine Idiopathic Vestibular Disease is a sudden, non-progressive disturbance of balance with no identifiable cause. It is often mistaken for stroke but is usually self-limiting.
Treatment - Supportive Care:
- Maintain hydration and nutrition; assist with feeding if needed.
- Minimize stress and confine to a safe, padded space to prevent injury from falling.
- Antiemetics:
- Maropitant: 1 mg/kg SC SID (for nausea and motion sickness).
- Meclizine: 12.5–25 mg/dog PO SID (dogs >10 kg), useful for motion-related dizziness.
- Sedatives (if agitation or severe disorientation):
- Diazepam: 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO or IV q8–12h (if needed).
Prognosis is generally good, with improvement often noted within 72 hours and near-complete recovery in 1–2 weeks. Recurrence is rare but possible.

Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy The most prominent symptoms include a dynamic systolic murmur, gallop heart sound, tachypnea, dyspnea, pulmonary rales or crackles, lethargy, anorexia, and in severe cases, thromboembolism (hindlimb paresis, absent femoral pulse). Some cats may show no clinical signs until decompensation. Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common cardiac disease in cats, characterized by concentric thickening of the left ventricle in the absence of other causes such as systemic hypertension or hyperthyroidism. Most often idiopathic, it primarily affects middle-aged male cats.
Treatment - Acute Stabilization:
- Furosemide: 1–2 mg/kg IV or IM q6–8h (reduce pulmonary edema).
- Oxygen therapy: via mask, oxygen cage, or flow-by.
- Long-term Management:
- Atenolol (β-blocker): 6.25–12.5 mg/cat PO SID-BID (if dynamic LV outflow obstruction).
- Diltiazem (Ca-channel blocker): 1.5–2.5 mg/kg PO TID or sustained-release 10 mg/kg PO SID.
- Clopidogrel: 18.75 mg/cat PO SID (to reduce risk of aortic thromboembolism).
- Enalapril or Benazepril (ACE inhibitors): 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID (in cases with CHF or proteinuria).
- Nutritional & Supportive Care:
- Low-sodium diet recommended in CHF cases.
- Monitor renal parameters and electrolytes during therapy.
Prognosis varies from excellent in asymptomatic cats to guarded in those with congestive heart failure or thromboembolic complications. Regular echocardiography is advised for monitoring.

Ulcerative KeratitisThe most prominent symptoms include conjunctival hyperemia, uveitis, blepharospasm, photophobia, epiphora, and purulent ocular discharge. The cornea may appear cloudy or show a visible ulcer with fluorescein staining. Ulcerative keratitis is a painful corneal condition caused by trauma, infection (bacterial, viral, fungal), or tear film disorders. Rapid diagnosis and aggressive treatment are critical to prevent corneal perforation and vision loss.
Treatment - Medical Management:
- Topical antibiotic: Fusidic acid 1 drop/eye BID (effective against Gram-positive bacteria).
- Broad-spectrum alternative: Tobramycin 0.3% or Ofloxacin 0.3% eye drops 1–2 drops/eye q6–8h.
- Anti-collagenase agent: Autologous serum or EDTA drops q6–8h for melting ulcers.
- Anti-inflammatory:
- Diclofenac 0.1% eye drops 1 drop/eye BID (avoid if deep ulcer or risk of perforation).
- Mydriatic/Cycloplegic:
- Atropine 1% eye drops 1 drop/eye SID–BID to relieve ciliary spasm and pain.
- Surgical Intervention:
- Conjunctival graft or corneal graft may be necessary for deep or non-healing ulcers.
Regular monitoring with fluorescein stain is essential. Avoid corticosteroids in ulcerative conditions due to risk of worsening infection and delayed healing.

Feline ChlamydophilosisThe most prominent symptoms include chronic conjunctivitis, sneezing, serous to mucopurulent nasal discharge, and mild fever. In queens, it may occasionally cause abortion or infertility. Feline Chlamydophilosis is a contagious bacterial infection caused by Chlamydophila felis, primarily affecting the eyes and upper respiratory tract. It is more common in multi-cat environments and young cats.
Treatment - Antibiotic Therapy:
- Doxycycline: 10 mg/kg PO SID for 28 days; administer with food to reduce esophageal irritation.
- Azithromycin: 7-10 mg/kg PO SID for 10-14 days (useful alternative in doxycycline-intolerant cats).
- Erythromycin: 10-20 mg/kg PO BID (less commonly used due to GI side effects).
- Supportive Care:
- Clean nasal and ocular discharge regularly.
- Isolate infected cats to prevent transmission.
Treatment should continue for at least 2 weeks beyond resolution of clinical signs to prevent recurrence or chronic carrier state. Vaccination can help reduce severity but not eliminate infection.

MycoplasmosisThe most prominent symptoms include persistent sneezing, mucopurulent nasal discharge, fever, conjunctivitis, polyarthritis with shifting leg lameness, coughing, and abscessation with draining lesions. In cats, Mycoplasma species can cause chronic respiratory and joint issues. Mycoplasmosis is a bacterial infection caused by various Mycoplasma species, affecting the respiratory tract, joints, and occasionally other systems. It often co-occurs with other infections and can become chronic if untreated.
Treatment - Antibiotic Therapy (first-line):
- Doxycycline: 10 mg/kg PO SID with food for 2-4 weeks (first-line treatment).
- Enrofloxacin: 5 mg/kg PO, SC, or IV SID (avoid in young growing dogs/cats due to cartilage effects).
- Azithromycin: 7-10 mg/kg PO SID for 5-10 days (alternative in doxycycline-intolerant patients).
- Second-line / adjunct antibiotics:
- Tylosin: 25 mg/kg PO BID (less common but effective for resistant strains).
- Clarithromycin: 7.5-15 mg/kg PO BID (used in refractory or systemic cases).
- Supportive Care:
- Maintain hydration, clean nasal/ocular discharges, and consider NSAIDs (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg SID) for joint inflammation.
Duration of therapy may extend beyond 4 weeks in chronic or polyarthritic cases. Co-infections (e.g., FIV, FeLV) should be ruled out in cats. Avoid using fluoroquinolones in growing animals unless absolutely necessary.

PenicilliosisThe most prominent symptoms include dyspnea, persistent mucopurulent nasal discharge, sneezing, ulceration of the nostrils, unilateral nasal discharge, facial swelling, and oculonasal discharge. Penicilliosis is a rare but serious systemic fungal infection caused by Talaromyces (Penicillium) marneffei, primarily affecting immunocompromised animals. It involves the respiratory tract and may disseminate systemically if untreated.
Treatment - Antifungal Therapy:
- Itraconazole: 5 mg/kg PO BID for 6–12 weeks (first-line, effective and better tolerated).
- Fluconazole: 5–10 mg/kg PO BID (alternative for CNS involvement due to better penetration).
- Ketoconazole: 5–10 mg/kg PO BID (less commonly used due to hepatotoxicity risk).
- Terbinafine: 30 mg/kg PO SID (adjunctive therapy in resistant or refractory cases).
- Amphotericin B: 0.25–0.5 mg/kg IV q48h, cumulative dose not exceeding 10–12 mg/kg (reserved for severe systemic cases; monitor renal function).
- Supportive Care:
- Oxygen therapy if dyspneic, nasal flushing or debridement if obstructive discharge present, and nutritional support.
Prolonged treatment is necessary, with careful monitoring of liver and kidney function. Early antifungal intervention improves prognosis significantly.

RhinosporidiosisThe most prominent symptoms include dyspnea, stertorous (snoring) breathing, and visible polypoid or nodular masses in the nasal cavity. Lesions may also appear as single or multiple pedunculated skin or mucosal growths, especially around nasal passages, conjunctiva, or skin folds. Rhinosporidiosis is a chronic granulomatous infection caused by Rhinosporidium seeberi, commonly affecting the nasal cavity and mucocutaneous tissues in dogs. It is rare in cats and has a geographic association with tropical/subtropical areas.
Treatment - Surgical Management:
- Complete surgical excision of nasal or dermal polyps using electrocautery or laser ablation is the treatment of choice.
- Recurrence is common without complete removal; excision should include a margin of healthy tissue.
- Antifungal Therapy (Adjunctive):
- Itraconazole: 5–10 mg/kg PO BID for 4–8 weeks post-surgery to reduce recurrence risk.
- Dapsone: 1 mg/kg PO BID (controversial use; inhibits sporangial maturation, but limited veterinary data).
Strict follow-up is required due to high recurrence rates. Antifungal therapy is supportive but not curative alone.

Hepatic Necrosis and Hepatic Failure The most prominent symptoms include anorexia, vomiting, jaundice, lethargy, ascites (abdominal distension due to fluid), melena, hematemesis, and signs of hepatic encephalopathy (depression, disorientation). Polyuria, polydipsia, and coagulopathies (e.g., excessive bleeding, prolonged clotting times) may also occur. Hepatic failure results from massive or progressive destruction of liver parenchyma, leading to impaired metabolism of glucose, proteins, and toxins, often accompanied by cholestasis and systemic complications.
Treatment - Stabilization & Supportive Care:
- IV Fluids: 5% Dextrose in Lactated Ringer’s to correct hypoglycemia and dehydration.
- Electrolyte correction: KCl 20-40 mEq/L added to fluids if hypokalemic.
- Plasma/Whole Blood: Fresh frozen plasma (10-20 mL/kg IV over 4 hrs) for coagulopathy; whole blood (10-15 mL/kg IV) if anemia or significant hemorrhage.
- Diuretics (for ascites):
- Furosemide: 1-2 mg/kg IV or PO BID-TID.
- Spironolactone: 2 mg/kg PO SID-BID may be added for refractory ascites.
- GI Protection:
- Famotidine: 0.5-1 mg/kg IV or PO SID.
- Sucralfate: 0.5-1 g/dog PO TID before meals for GI ulceration.
- Osmotic Diuretic (for encephalopathy or cerebral edema):
- Mannitol: 0.5-1 g/kg IV over 20 minutes; repeat in 6-12 hrs if needed.
- Vasopressors (if hypotensive):
- Dopamine: 2-5 µg/kg/min IV CRI.
- Dobutamine: 2-10 µg/kg/min IV CRI for myocardial support.
- Antibiotics:
- Broad-spectrum (e.g., ampicillin 20 mg/kg IV TID + metronidazole 10-15 mg/kg IV BID) to prevent secondary sepsis or endotoxemia.
Prognosis depends on severity and response to supportive care. Early intervention improves outcomes, especially in acute hepatic insult.

Polycystic Kidney Disease The most prominent symptoms include progressive azotemia, proteinuria, hypertension, polyuria/polydipsia, and signs of uremia (vomiting, anorexia, weight loss). Renal cysts may be palpable or visible on imaging, and renal enlargement or deformity is common. Polycystic Kidney Disease is an inherited condition (particularly in Persian and related cat breeds) characterized by multiple fluid-filled cysts in the renal cortex and medulla, leading to progressive renal dysfunction. Cysts may also be present in the liver and pancreas.
Treatment - Dietary Management:
- Protein restriction: Formulated renal diet to reduce nitrogenous waste.
- Phosphorus restriction: < 0.5% phosphorus (DM basis); phosphate binders if needed (e.g., aluminum hydroxide 30-90 mg/kg/day PO divided).
- Omega-3 Fatty Acids: 50-100 mg/kg/day (EPA/DHA combined) to reduce inflammation.
- Blood Pressure Control:
- Benazepril or Enalapril: 0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO SID to reduce proteinuria and manage hypertension.
- Amlodipine: 0.625-1.25 mg/cat PO SID if systolic BP >160 mmHg (in cats).
- Pain or Neuropathic Management:
- Gabapentin: 5-10 mg/kg PO BID-TID (not 40 mg/kg, which is excessive).
- Other supportive care:
- Fluids: SC fluids (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s 60–100 mL/cat q24–48h) in later stages for dehydration.
- Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents:(e.g., darbepoetin) for anemia in chronic stages.
There is no cure; treatment is focused on slowing progression, managing complications, and maintaining quality of life. Genetic testing and breeding control are essential to prevent propagation.

Pulmonary Osteosarcoma The most prominent symptoms include progressive dyspnea, chronic sneezing, persistent or intermittent nasal discharge, coughing (in some cases), and weight loss. Signs are often non-specific until the tumor significantly affects lung function or spreads. Pulmonary osteosarcoma is a rare, aggressive, malignant bone-forming tumor primarily affecting the lungs, either as a primary site or as metastatic disease from skeletal osteosarcoma. It carries a poor prognosis due to rapid progression and limited treatment options.
Treatment - Chemotherapy:
- Doxorubicin: 30 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks (dogs and cats), total of 4-6 cycles.
- Cisplatin: 60 mg/m² IV every 3-4 weeks (dogs only; contraindicated in cats due to pulmonary toxicity). Administer with IV diuresis (e.g., 0.9% NaCl at 18-20 mL/kg/hr during infusion) to reduce nephrotoxicity.
- Supportive Care:
- Oxygen therapy: For animals with significant dyspnea or hypoxemia.
- NSAIDs: (e.g., piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID) may provide anti-inflammatory and mild anti-neoplastic effects.
- Opioids: For pain and respiratory comfort (e.g., buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV/IM/SC q6–8h).
- Palliative Surgery:
- Not commonly feasible for pulmonary forms, unless solitary resectable mass is present (rare).

Pulmonary Chondrosarcoma The most prominent symptoms include progressive dyspnea, chronic sneezing, persistent nasal or oculonasal discharge, coughing (often non-productive), exercise intolerance, and lethargy. Symptoms may remain subtle until the tumor significantly compromises lung function or expands locally. Chondrosarcoma is a malignant tumor of cartilaginous origin. In the lungs, it can arise as a primary tumor or via metastasis. It is locally invasive and may metastasize late. Primary pulmonary chondrosarcoma is rare but aggressive.
Treatment - Surgical Resection:
- If the tumor is solitary, lobectomy is the treatment of choice and offers the best chance for prolonged survival. Pre-op staging via thoracic imaging is essential.
- Chemotherapy:
- Doxorubicin: 30 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks for 4-6 cycles (dogs and cats).
- Cisplatin: 60 mg/m² IV every 3-4 weeks (dogs only). Ensure aggressive IV diuresis during administration to minimize nephrotoxicity. Contraindicated in cats.
- Supportive Care:
- Oxygen therapy: For patients with respiratory compromise.
- Anti-inflammatory analgesics: Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID may have mild anti-tumor activity.
- Opioids: Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV/IM/SC q6–8h for pain management.
Prognosis is guarded to poor depending on surgical resectability and metastasis. Early diagnosis and intervention improve outcome.

Pulmonary LymphomaThe most prominent symptom is progressive dyspnea. Other possible signs include coughing, lethargy, weight loss, tachypnea, and reduced exercise tolerance. In cats, pleural effusion may also be observed.
Pulmonary lymphoma may be primary (rare) or secondary to multicentric lymphoma. It is a malignant lymphoproliferative disease involving lung parenchyma, bronchi, or mediastinal structures. Diagnosis is confirmed by imaging and cytology or histopathology.
Treatment - Chemotherapy Protocols:
CHOP-based regimen (Dogs & Cats):
- Vincristine: 0.5-0.7 mg/m² IV weekly (dogs), 0.5 mg/m² IV weekly (cats)
- Cyclophosphamide: 200-250 mg/m² PO or IV every 3 weeks
- Doxorubicin: 30 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks (dogs); 1 mg/kg IV in cats
- Prednisolone: 2 mg/kg PO SID, taper over weeks
- Alternative or adjunct agents:
- Epirubicin: 3 mg/m² slow IV every 3 weeks after premedication with chlorpheniramine (0.5 mg/kg IM) or dexamethasone (0.1 mg/kg IV)
- Dactinomycin: 0.75-1.0 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks (as a doxorubicin substitute)
- Supportive Care:
- Oxygen therapy: For patients with respiratory distress
- Antiemetics and GI protectants: As needed during chemotherapy
- Thoracocentesis: In case of pleural effusion causing severe dyspnea
Response to treatment varies. Multicentric or mediastinal forms may have a better prognosis with aggressive chemotherapy, while primary pulmonary lymphoma carries a guarded prognosis.

Esophageal Foreign BodyMost prominent symptoms include lethargy, anorexia, ptyalism, exaggerated swallowing, gagging, retching, regurgitation, restlessness, tachypnea, coughing, and signs of aspiration pneumonia (dyspnea, fever). In severe cases, choking or esophageal rupture may occur.
Esophageal foreign bodies are more common in dogs than cats and typically lodge at anatomical narrowing sites such as the thoracic inlet, base of the heart, or diaphragm. Prompt diagnosis and removal are critical to avoid complications like esophagitis, perforation, or stricture.
Treatment- Sedation and Assessment:
- Radiographs or fluoroscopy to confirm location and type of foreign body.
- Endoscopic Removal (preferred method):
- Flexible or rigid endoscopy: Performed under general anesthesia.
- Instruments: Long grasping forceps, flexible alligator forceps, or Foley catheter with balloon (to gently push object into stomach if safe).
- Surgical Removal:
- Lateral thoracotomy: Indicated if endoscopic removal fails or perforation is suspected.
- Post-Removal Management:
- Sucralfate: 0.5–1 g PO TID for 7–10 days for esophageal mucosa protection.
- Omeprazole: 1 mg/kg PO SID for acid suppression.
- Antibiotics: Broad-spectrum (e.g., ampicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID) if esophagitis or aspiration pneumonia is suspected.
- Nutritional support: Soft food diet or feeding tube if severe esophagitis occurs.
Early intervention improves prognosis. Monitor for complications such as stricture formation or aspiration pneumonia following removal.

Osteochondrosis & Osteochondritis Dissecans (OCD)Most prominent symptoms include intermittent or unilateral lameness, joint pain, stiffness after rest, worsening with exercise, and discomfort on manipulation. Typically affects young, large-breed dogs between 4-7 months of age.
OCD results from failure of endochondral ossification leading to focal cartilage thickening, necrosis, and separation (dissecting lesions). Common sites: shoulder, elbow, stifle, hock. Influenced by genetics, rapid growth, trauma, overnutrition.
Treatment
- Exercise Restriction: Strict cage rest or leash walks only for 4–6 weeks.
- Weight Management: Maintain lean body condition to reduce joint load.
- Surgical Management (moderate to severe cases):
- Arthroscopy or Arthrotomy: Removal of cartilage flap and curettage of subchondral bone.
- Post-op Care: Controlled rehab and physical therapy for 4–6 weeks.
- Pain and Joint Support (post-op or supportive):
- Meloxicam: 0.1 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only, for short-term use).
- Gabapentin: 10–20 mg/kg PO BID–TID if neuropathic pain suspected.
- Joint Supplements: Glucosamine (20 mg/kg) and Chondroitin (15 mg/kg) PO SID.
Early surgical intervention for clinically significant lesions offers the best prognosis, especially in shoulder OCD. Delayed treatment may lead to degenerative joint disease.

Hypokalemia(decreased potassium level)Most prominent symptoms include polyuria, polydipsia, generalized muscle weakness, ventroflexion of the neck (especially in cats), lethargy, constipation, and in severe cases, metabolic collapse.
Hypokalemia is defined as a serum potassium concentration below 3.5 mEq/L. It is commonly associated with chronic kidney disease, prolonged anorexia, diuretic use, gastrointestinal losses, or inadequate intake. Particularly prevalent in older cats with CKD.
Treatment - Oral Potassium Supplementation (mild to moderate cases):
- Potassium Gluconate: 2–4 mEq/animal PO BID with food. Monitor serum potassium weekly.
- Intravenous Potassium Correction (moderate to severe cases):
- Potassium Chloride (KCl): Add 20–60 mEq/L to IV fluids. Administer slowly, not exceeding 0.5 mEq/kg/hr. Continuous ECG monitoring recommended.
- Supportive & Underlying Condition Management:
- Address underlying cause: CKD, GI loss, or diuretic-induced depletion.
- Dietary Management: Use renal-friendly diets enriched with potassium.
Rapid IV correction is dangerous and may lead to fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Oral supplementation is preferred when feasible. Ventroflexion typically resolves with correction.

Otitis MediaMost prominent symptoms include head tilt, ataxia, nystagmus, facial paralysis, otic pruritus, pain on jaw movement, and possible deafness. Signs often follow chronic or untreated otitis externa.
Otitis media is an inflammation/infection of the middle ear, commonly due to extension from otitis externa through a ruptured tympanic membrane or via the auditory tube. Often caused by bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus spp., Pseudomonas spp.), yeasts, or rarely mites. Chronic inflammation can lead to bony changes or polyp formation.
Treatment - Diagnostic Evaluation:
- Otoscopy under anesthesia: Assess tympanic membrane integrity and perform deep ear flushing.
- Imaging: Skull radiographs, CT, or MRI for bulla involvement.
- Cytology and Culture: Aspirate middle ear exudate via myringotomy if tympanic membrane is intact.
- Medical Treatment:
- Ceruminolytic Flushing: Use warm ceruminolytics (e.g., dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate) to soften debris before flushing. Allow 5–10 minutes contact time.
- Topical Antibiotics: Framycetin 5 mg/g or Fusidic acid (2–10 drops per ear BID for 7–14 days) if tympanic membrane is ruptured.
- Systemic Antibiotics: Based on culture/sensitivity. Empirically:
- Clindamycin: 5.5 mg/kg PO BID (especially with anaerobic involvement).
- Enrofloxacin: 5 mg/kg PO SID (for Gram-negative infections).
- Surgical Management (if refractory):
- Bulla Osteotomy: Required for chronic, unresponsive otitis media or polyps.
Failure to resolve otitis media may lead to permanent neurologic deficits. Rechecks and follow-up cytology are critical to ensure resolution.

Enteric CampylobacteriosisMost prominent symptoms include acute to chronic diarrhea (watery, bloody, mucoid, bile-streaked, or melena), vomiting, mild fever, and dehydration. In some animals, intermittent diarrhea and weight loss may occur without systemic illness.
Enteric Campylobacteriosis is a zoonotic bacterial enteritis caused primarily by Campylobacter jejuni, a curved, gram-negative rod. Other species include C. upsaliensis and C. lari. It primarily affects young or immunocompromised animals and is often transmitted via fecal-oral contact or contaminated environments.
Treatment - Antimicrobial Therapy:
- Erythromycin: 10–15 mg/kg PO TID for 7–10 days (first-line antibiotic of choice).
- Doxycycline: 5 mg/kg PO BID for 7 days (alternative, especially in cats).
- Cephalexin (2nd generation cephalosporin): 20–30 mg/kg PO BID (effective in some cases).
- Note: Avoid routine use of fluoroquinolones like enrofloxacin to prevent resistance. In cats, enrofloxacin is restricted to ≤5 mg/kg/day due to retinal toxicity risk.
- Supportive Therapy:
- Butylscopolamine (Spanil): 0.3–0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID to reduce intestinal spasms.
- Fluid Therapy: Oral or IV rehydration depending on severity of dehydration.
- Probiotics: May help restore normal GI flora.
Campylobacter can be a zoonotic risk. Hygiene and environmental sanitation are important. Recheck fecal PCR/culture in persistent cases to confirm clearance.

Nutritional MyopathyMost prominent symptoms include generalized or localized weakness, difficulty standing or walking, reluctance to exercise or play, stiff gait especially after rest, muscle atrophy in limbs or spine, fine muscle twitching, involuntary movements, lethargy, difficulty swallowing or chewing, regurgitation or aspiration pneumonia, exercise intolerance, rapid breathing, and coughing.
Nutritional myopathy is a degenerative muscle disease caused by deficiency of selenium and/or vitamin E, leading to oxidative damage of muscle fibers. It commonly affects rapidly growing animals or those with poor nutrition, causing profound muscle weakness and potential respiratory compromise.
Treatment - Nutritional Supplementation:
- Selenium: 0.1–0.3 mg/kg PO once daily for 4–6 weeks (dose adjusted based on deficiency severity).
- Vitamin E: 10–15 IU/kg PO once daily, continued for several months.
- Supportive Care:
- Assisted feeding and management of aspiration pneumonia if present.
- Oxygen therapy if respiratory distress occurs.
Early diagnosis and supplementation improve prognosis; untreated cases may lead to severe muscle damage and respiratory failure.

Lower Urinary Tract Disease (LUTD) Most prominent symptoms include polyuria, polydipsia, dysuria, hematuria, frequent urination, and occasionally incontinence. Signs may be accompanied by abdominal discomfort and vocalizing during urination.
LUTD encompasses a group of conditions affecting the urinary bladder and urethra, including infections, stones, and inflammation. Common causes include bacterial cystitis, urinary crystals, and idiopathic cystitis. LUTD can be acute or chronic and requires a thorough evaluation to determine the underlying cause.
Treatment- Antibiotic Therapy (for bacterial infections):
- Cefixime: 5 mg/kg PO once daily for 7–14 days (based on culture and sensitivity).
- Enrofloxacin: 5 mg/kg SC, IV, or PO SID for 7–14 days, depending on infection severity (not recommended for growing animals due to potential cartilage toxicity).
- Supportive Care:
- Increased water intake to flush the urinary system.
- Dietary management: Prescription diets formulated for urinary health (e.g., Hill's c/d or Royal Canin Urinary SO).
Monitoring urinalysis and follow-up exams are essential to assess response to treatment and prevent recurrence of LUTD.

Laryngeal Collapse Most prominent symptoms include progressive dyspnea, snoring, loud inspiratory stridor, exercise intolerance, cyanosis, and possible syncope. Signs may worsen during excitement, stress, or heat exposure.
Laryngeal collapse is the loss of structural support of the laryngeal cartilages, commonly secondary to chronic upper airway obstruction (e.g., brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome) or direct trauma. It progresses through stages, with increasing airway compromise as laryngeal tissues weaken and collapse inward.
Treatment - Surgical Management:
- Stage I (everted saccules): Transoral resection of everted laryngeal saccules using long-handled scissors under general anesthesia.
- Stage II (medial deviation of cuneiform processes): Unilateral aryepiglottic fold resection or partial arytenoidectomy may relieve obstruction.
- Stage III (collapse of corniculate processes): Permanent tracheostomy is often the only effective option for long-term airway patency.
- Medical and Supportive Management (pre- and post-operative):
- Prednisolone: 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID to reduce laryngeal inflammation and edema (short-term use).
- Butorphanol: 0.2–0.4 mg/kg IM or IV as needed to reduce stress and upper airway effort.
- Oxygen therapy: Especially in acute distress or post-op recovery.
- Cooling and sedation: Essential during respiratory crises in brachycephalic breeds.
Laryngeal collapse is often progressive. Early intervention in brachycephalic airway disease and weight management can slow progression. Referral to a veterinary surgeon is highly recommended for advanced cases.

Canine Infectious Respiratory Disease (CIRD) Most prominent symptoms include a dry cough, hacking cough (often described as “goose-honking”), gagging, retching, nasal discharge, lethargy, and occasionally fever. Severe cases may progress to bronchopneumonia, especially in young, immunocompromised, or co-infected animals.
CIRD, commonly known as kennel cough, is a multifactorial contagious respiratory disease complex involving pathogens such as Bordetella bronchiseptica, canine parainfluenza virus, canine adenovirus-2, and others. It is frequently seen in dogs recently exposed to boarding kennels, shelters, or dog parks. Though often self-limiting, it can become chronic or severe without appropriate intervention.
Treatment Antibiotic Therapy:
- Doxycycline:: 5 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days; first-line treatment for Bordetella bronchiseptica.
- Amoxicillin-Clavulanate:: 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID for mixed or secondary bacterial infections.
Nebulization Therapy (for refractory cases):
- Gentamicin:: Nebulized at 5 mg diluted in 3–5 mL saline, 10–15 minutes BID for 5–7 days (monitor for bronchospasm).
- Nebulization helps deliver high concentrations of antibiotics directly to airways.
Supportive Care:
- Cough suppressants: Butorphanol 0.2–0.4 mg/kg PO or IM BID (if cough is nonproductive and distressing).
- Anti-inflammatories:: Prednisolone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID for 3–5 days (short-term only, if airway inflammation is prominent).
- Ensure hydration, stress reduction, and isolation from other animals to prevent spread.
Vaccination (intranasal or oral Bordetella and parainfluenza) is effective in reducing severity and incidence. Most cases improve within 7–14 days with appropriate care.

Sarcoptic Mange (Scabies) Most prominent symptoms include intense pruritus (especially on ears, elbows, chest, and ventral abdomen), yellowish crusts, erythema, alopecia, generalized seborrhea, and severe skin thickening with fold formation. Lesions are often non-seasonal and may spread rapidly among animals and humans (zoonotic).
Sarcoptic mange is caused by Sarcoptes scabiei var. canis, a burrowing mite. It triggers a hypersensitivity reaction, leading to intense itching and characteristic lesions. Common in dogs; rare but possible in cats. Transmission occurs via direct contact or contaminated environments.
Treatment Topical Treatments:
- Selamectin (Revolution®): 6–12 mg/kg spot-on every 2–4 weeks, minimum 2 applications.
- Imidacloprid-Moxidectin (Advocate®): Apply spot-on once every 4 weeks for 2–3 treatments.
- Moxidectin alone: 2.5 mg/kg spot-on, repeated in 4 weeks if needed.
Oral/Systemic Treatments:
- Milbemycin oxime: 2 mg/kg PO once weekly for 3–4 weeks.
- Ivermectin: 200 mcg/kg PO or SC once every 2 weeks for 2–3 doses (off-label in dogs, contraindicated in some breeds e.g., Collies; use with caution).
Supportive Care:
- Antipruritic therapy: Oatmeal-based shampoos or glucocorticoids (short-term use).
- Treat all in-contact animals and decontaminate environment.
Recheck after 4 weeks is recommended. Full resolution may take up to 6–8 weeks post-treatment.

Feline tuberculosisMost prominent symptoms include progressive dyspnea, soft chronic cough, dysphagia, hypersalivation, weight loss, anemia, vomiting, and cervical or thoracic lymphadenopathy. May present with non-healing wounds or granulomatous skin lesions.
Tuberculosis in cats is a rare zoonotic disease caused by Mycobacterium bovis or Mycobacterium microti. Transmission is typically through ingestion of infected prey (e.g., rodents), milk, or inhalation of aerosols. It causes systemic granulomatous disease affecting lungs, lymph nodes, liver, and GI tract.
Treatment Antimycobacterial Therapy (off-label, prolonged use):
- Isoniazid: 10 mg/kg PO once daily.
- Rifampin: 10-15 mg/kg PO once daily.
- Ethambutol: 15-25 mg/kg PO once daily.
- Streptomycin: 20-30 mg/kg IM, 2-3 times per week (up to 2–3 months, rarely used now due to nephrotoxicity and availability).
- Supportive Care:
- Nutritional support, fluid therapy, and monitoring of hepatic function during treatment.
- Treatment duration: Minimum 6 months; zoonotic risk must be assessed.
Due to zoonotic potential and drug toxicity, euthanasia may be considered in advanced cases or multi-drug-resistant infections. Public health authorities should be notified.

Babesiosis in Dogs and Cats Prominent signs in dogs include high fever, regenerative anemia, jaundice (icterus), dark-colored urine (hemoglobinuria), lethargy, splenomegaly, and thrombocytopenia. In severe cases, dogs may develop respiratory distress, shock, or multi-organ failure. In cats, particularly in endemic regions like South Africa, signs of Babesia felis infection may include lethargy, anorexia, anemia, fever, and icterus, though clinical signs are often milder or subclinical. Transmission occurs via tick vectors such as Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Dermacentor, and Haemaphysalis species.
Treatment In dogs: Imidocarb dipropionate 5–6 mg/kg IM or SC once, repeated after 14 days. Administer atropine 0.02 mg/kg SC to counteract cholinergic effects. For Babesia gibsoniB. felis, though tolerance and safety must be closely monitored. Supportive care with fluids, nutritional support, and oxygen therapy (if anemic hypoxia occurs) is essential. Strict tick control (e.g., fluralaner, sarolaner) is vital to prevent reinfection.aaaa

Symptom analysis.

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