jerking movement

Constipation(1) Neurological Disorders: Parkinson’s-Like Disease, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, stroke, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)-Like Disease, cerebral palsy, autonomic neuropathy
(2) Endocrine and Metabolic Conditions: Hypothyroidism, diabetes mellitus, hypercalcemia, chronic kidney disease, hyperparathyroidism, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, uremia
(3) Gastrointestinal Disorders: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), diverticular disease, colorectal cancer, Hirschsprung’s disease, chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction, solitary rectal ulcer syndrome, anal fissures, rectal prolapse, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
(4) Other Conditions: Celiac disease, systemic sclerosis (scleroderma), muscular dystrophy, neurogenic bowel dysfunction, depression, cognitive impairment.

Abdominal Distension(1) Gastrointestinal Disorders: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), celiac disease, lactose intolerance, constipation, Intestinal Obstruction, volvulus, Hirschsprung’s disease, toxic megacolon
(2) Hepatic and Pancreatic Conditions: Liver cirrhosis, ascites, pancreatitis
(3) Neoplastic Causes: Ovarian cysts, abdominal tumors, colorectal cancer, lymphoma
(4) Infectious and Inflammatory Conditions: Gastroenteritis, peritonitis, tuberculosis
(5) Other Conditions: Pregnancy, obesity, heart failure, kidney failure, hypothyroidism, aerophagia

Abdominal Pain(1) Gastrointestinal Disorders: Gastritis, gastroenteritis, gastric dilatation-volvulus (GDV), intestinal obstruction, intussusception, foreign body ingestion, colitis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), constipation, peritonitis, pancreatitis, hepatic lipidosis (cats), hepatic disease, neoplasia (e.g., lymphoma, adenocarcinoma)
(2) Urogenital Disorders: Pyometra, urinary tract infection (UTI), urolithiasis (bladder stones), cystitis, prostatic disease, Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones), acute kidney injury, urinary obstruction
(3) Reproductive Disorders: Dystocia, ovarian cysts, testicular torsion, uterine torsion
(4) Musculoskeletal Disorders: Intervertebral disc disease (IVDD), abdominal muscle strain, trauma
(5) Other Conditions: Abdominal trauma, peritonitis, hernia, neoplasia, systemic infections, hypoadrenocorticism (Addison's disease), diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)

Mucopurulent Nasal Discharge (1) Canine Distemper Virus (CDV): Viral infection in dogs causing mucopurulent discharge, fever, and neurological signs
(2) Canine Infectious Tracheobronchitis (Kennel Cough): Caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica, parainfluenza virus; discharge often progresses from serous to mucopurulent
(3) Canine Adenovirus Type 2: Part of the kennel cough complex; leads to nasal and ocular discharge
(4) Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 (FHV-1): Viral rhinotracheitis in cats causing conjunctivitis and mucopurulent nasal discharge
(5) Feline Calicivirus (FCV): Causes upper respiratory disease with nasal discharge and oral ulcers in cats
(6) Chlamydia felis: Bacterial infection in cats leading to conjunctivitis and nasal discharge
(7) Mycoplasma spp.: Opportunistic bacteria contributing to respiratory disease in dogs and cats
(8) Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP): Especially dry form may present with nasal discharge and ocular involvement
(9) Cryptococcosis: Fungal infection, especially in cats; causes mucopurulent nasal discharge and swelling over the nose
(10) Nasal Foreign Body: Causes irritation, sneezing, and often unilateral mucopurulent discharge
(11) Nasal Neoplasia: Tumors such as adenocarcinoma or lymphoma can cause chronic mucopurulent discharge, often unilateral
(12) Tooth Root Abscess (Upper Premolars/Molars): Dental infections can extend into nasal passages, causing discharge
(13) Chronic Rhinitis: Inflammation of the nasal passages due to allergies, irritants, or prior infections
(14) Secondary Bacterial Infections: Often complicate viral infections, turning serous discharge into mucopurulent

Mucopurulent Ocular Discharge (1) Conjunctivitis: Inflammation of the conjunctiva; commonly caused by bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus, Streptococcus), viruses, or allergens
(2) Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca (KCS / Dry Eye): Decreased tear production leads to thick, mucopurulent ocular discharge; common in dogs
(3) Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 (FHV-1): Viral infection in cats causing conjunctivitis, keratitis, and mucopurulent discharge
(4) Chlamydia felis: Bacterial cause of conjunctivitis and ocular discharge in cats
(5) Mycoplasma spp.: Opportunistic bacteria contributing to ocular discharge, especially in cats
(6) Feline Calicivirus (FCV): May cause conjunctivitis and ocular discharge along with oral ulcers
(7) Canine Distemper Virus (CDV): Systemic viral infection that may cause mucopurulent ocular and nasal discharge in dogs
(8) Entropion: Inward rolling of eyelids causes corneal irritation and secondary infection with discharge
(9) Ectopic Cilia / Distichiasis: Abnormally located eyelashes irritate the eye leading to discharge
(10) Corneal Ulceration: Can be associated with secondary infection and mucopurulent discharge
(11) Foreign Body (Eye): Presence of a foreign object can cause irritation, infection, and discharge
(12) Uveitis: Intraocular inflammation can lead to ocular discharge and discomfort
(13) Glaucoma: Increased intraocular pressure can be associated with ocular discharge
(14) Nasolacrimal Duct Obstruction: Leads to tear overflow and secondary infection producing mucopurulent discharge
(15) Trauma or Irritants: Exposure to smoke, dust, or injury can lead to inflammation and mucopurulent ocular discharge

Vomiting (1) Gastrointestinal Diseases: Gastritis, Gastric Dilatation-Volvulus (GDV), Foreign Body, Intestinal Obstruction, Intussusception, Parvoviral Enteritis, Pyloric Stenosis, Colitis, Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
(2) Infectious Diseases: Canine Parvovirus, Feline Panleukopenia, Canine Coronavirus, Feline Coronavirus, Rotavirus, Salmonellosis, Campylobacteriosis, Leptospirosis, Infectious Canine Hepatitis
(3) Parasitic Infections: Toxocariasis, Coccidiosis, Giardiasis, Ancylostomiasis, Ascaridiosis
(4) Toxins and Drugs: Rodenticide Toxicity, Chocolate Toxicity, Xylitol Toxicity, Grape/Raisin Toxicity, Ethylene Glycol Toxicity, NSAID Overdose, Chemotherapy Side Effects, Organophosphate Toxicity
(5) Metabolic and Systemic Disorders: Renal Failure, Hepatic Encephalopathy, Diabetic Ketoacidosis, Addison’s Disease (Hypoadrenocorticism), Feline Hyperthyroidism
(6) Pancreatic Diseases: Pancreatitis, Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency (EPI)
(7) Neurologic Causes: Vestibular Disease, Brain Trauma, Increased Intracranial Pressure
(8) Dietary Causes: Dietary Indiscretion, Food Hypersensitivity, Spoiled Food, Diet Change
(9) Motion Sickness: Common in puppies and sensitive cats during travel
(10) Neoplasia: Gastric Tumors, Lymphoma, Intestinal Neoplasia
(11) Pain or Stress: Severe Pain, Anxiety, Fear
(12) Endocrine Diseases: Hypercalcemia due to neoplasia or renal dysfunction

Coughing(1) Respiratory Infections: Canine infectious tracheobronchitis (kennel cough), canine influenza, feline calicivirus, Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 infection, bacterial pneumonia, fungal pneumonia
(2) Parasitic Diseases: Heartworm disease, lungworm infection (Aelurostrongylus abstrusus, Capillaria spp.)
(3) Airway Diseases: Chronic bronchitis, tracheal collapse (dogs), feline asthma, laryngeal paralysis
(4) Cardiac Disorders: Congestive heart failure, mitral valve disease, cardiomyopathy (especially in cats), pericardial effusion
(5) Neoplasia: Lung tumors, tracheal or bronchial neoplasia, metastatic disease to lungs
(6) Foreign Bodies and Irritants: Inhaled grass awns, smoke inhalation, environmental allergens, aspiration
(7) Other Causes: Pleural effusion, pulmonary edema, diaphragmatic hernia, eosinophilic bronchopneumopathy (dogs)

Head Pressing (1) Neurological Disorders: Brain tumor, encephalitis, meningitis, hydrocephalus, stroke, brain trauma, hepatic encephalopathy
(2) Metabolic and Toxic Conditions: Liver failure, hypoglycemia, electrolyte imbalances, toxin exposure (lead, pesticides, etc.)
(3) Infectious Diseases: Canine distemper, rabies, feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), toxoplasmosis
(4) Other Causes: Severe pain, vestibular disease, seizures, intracranial hemorrhage

Icterus (Jaundice) (1) Pre-hepatic Causes: Hemolytic anemia, immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA), Babesiosis, Mycoplasma haemofelis (cats), Heinz body anemia (e.g., from onion, acetaminophen toxicity), incompatible blood transfusion, zinc toxicity
(2) Hepatic Causes: Hepatitis, leptospirosis, hepatic lipidosis (cats), toxic hepatopathy, neoplasia (e.g., lymphoma, hepatocellular carcinoma), congenital portosystemic shunt, feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), cholangiohepatitis
(3) Post-hepatic (Obstructive) Causes: Cholelithiasis (gallstones), cholangitis, biliary obstruction (e.g., from neoplasia or pancreatitis), bile duct rupture or stricture, mucocele of the gallbladder, pancreatitis, pancreatic neoplasia

Hypersalivation (Ptyalism)(1) Oral and Dental Causes: Stomatitis, gingivitis, dental abscess, oral ulcers, foreign bodies (e.g., sticks, bones), neoplasia (oral tumors), fractured teeth
(2) Neurological Disorders: Rabies, tetanus, facial nerve paralysis, trigeminal nerve disorders, brainstem lesions
(3) Gastrointestinal and Esophageal Disorders: Esophagitis, megaesophagus, nausea, gastroesophageal reflux, hiatal hernia
(4) Toxins and Irritants: Caustic chemicals, plants (e.g., sago palm, philodendron), insecticides, heavy metals, toads (Bufotoxin), drug reactions (e.g., metronidazole)
(5) Systemic Illnesses: Hepatic encephalopathy, uremia (chronic kidney disease), infectious diseases (e.g., feline calicivirus, canine distemper)
(6) Anxiety and Behavioral Causes: Stress, motion sickness, fear-induced nausea
(7) Other Conditions: Sialocele (salivary mucocele), heat stroke, oral trauma, electric cord injury

Paralysis. (1) Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD): Common in chondrodystrophic dog breeds (e.g., Dachshunds), causing spinal cord compression
(2) Trauma: Spinal fractures, luxations, or nerve root avulsion due to vehicular accidents or falls
(3) Fibrocartilaginous Embolism (FCE): Acute spinal cord infarction typically in large breed dogs
(4) Degenerative Myelopathy: Progressive spinal cord degeneration, especially in German Shepherds
(5) Tick Paralysis: Caused by neurotoxins from ticks such as Ixodes or Dermacentor species
(6) Botulism: Caused by Clostridium botulinum toxin, leading to flaccid paralysis (rare in cats)
(7) Myasthenia Gravis: Autoimmune neuromuscular disorder causing weakness and possible paralysis
(8) Polyradiculoneuritis: Also known as Coonhound paralysis, immune-mediated, often following raccoon bite
(9) Neoplasia: Spinal cord tumors (e.g., meningioma, lymphoma), peripheral nerve sheath tumors
(10) Infectious Diseases: Distemper (dogs), FIP (cats), Toxoplasmosis, Neospora caninum
(11) Congenital Disorders: Spina bifida, atlantoaxial instability, caudal occipital malformation syndrome (COMS)
(12) Vascular Events: Ischemic myelopathy, spinal hemorrhage
(13) Metabolic and Toxic Causes: Hypokalemic polymyopathy (cats), lead poisoning, organophosphate toxicity

Blindness (1) Ocular Diseases: Cataracts, glaucoma, retinal detachment, progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), uveitis, corneal ulcers
(2) Neurological Disorders: Optic neuritis, brain tumors, stroke, encephalitis, trauma affecting optic pathways
(3) Systemic Diseases: Diabetes mellitus (leading to cataracts), hypertension (causing retinal hemorrhage), hypertension-related retinopathy
(4) Toxic and Nutritional Causes: Lead poisoning, taurine deficiency (cats), hypovitaminosis A

Head Tilt (1) Ear Disorders: Otitis media, otitis interna, ear mites, ear polyps
(2) Neurological Disorders: Vestibular disease (idiopathic or vestibular neuritis), brain tumors, stroke, encephalitis, trauma
(3) Systemic Diseases: Hypothyroidism (causing neuropathy), toxin exposure affecting the nervous system
(4) Other Causes: Vestibular labyrinthitis, hypothyroidism-related neuropathy, vestibular nerve dysfunction

Dry Harsh Cough (1) Respiratory Infections: Canine infectious tracheobronchitis (Kennel cough), feline upper respiratory infection
(2) Chronic Bronchitis: Inflammation of the airways causing persistent dry cough
(3) Tracheal Collapse: Common in small breed dogs causing harsh dry cough
(4) Cardiac Causes: Heart disease causing cough due to pulmonary edema or enlarged heart pressing on airways
(5) Other Causes: Foreign body in airway, neoplasia (tumors), lung fibrosis, chronic irritation or inflammation of the trachea or bronchi.

Hematuria (1) Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs): Bacterial infections of the bladder or urethra
(2) urolithiasis (bladder stones): Presence of urinary stones in the bladder, urethra, or kidneys
(3) Trauma: Injury to the urinary tract from accidents, surgery, or catheterization
(4) Neoplasia: Transitional cell carcinoma, prostatic tumors, or other urinary tract cancers
(5) Coagulopathies: Clotting disorders such as thrombocytopenia or anticoagulant toxicity
(6) Prostatic Disease (in dogs): Benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis
(7) Kidney Disease: Glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, renal trauma
(8) Congenital Abnormalities: Ectopic ureters, vascular anomalies
(9) Parasitic Infections: Capillaria plica or Dioctophyma renale infestation
(10) Idiopathic Renal Hematuria: Seen occasionally in young large-breed dogs

Exercise Intolerance (1) Cardiovascular Disorders: Dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (cats), congenital heart defects (e.g., PDA, pulmonic stenosis), heartworm disease
(2) Respiratory Disorders: Brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome, tracheal collapse, laryngeal paralysis, chronic bronchitis, feline asthma, pneumonia
(3) Musculoskeletal Disorders: Hip dysplasia, osteoarthritis, intervertebral disc disease, degenerative myelopathy, myopathies
(4) Neuromuscular Diseases: Myasthenia gravis, polymyositis, peripheral neuropathies
(5) Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders: Hypothyroidism (dogs), hyperthyroidism (cats), diabetes mellitus, Cushing’s disease, Addison’s disease
(6) Anemia: From chronic disease, blood loss, hemolysis, or nutritional deficiencies
(7) Obesity: Excess weight contributing to fatigue and decreased stamina
(8) Pain or Discomfort: From injury, arthritis, or internal disease
(9) Systemic Illnesses: Infections (e.g., ehrlichiosis, babesiosis), neoplasia
(10) Medication Side Effects: Sedatives, beta-blockers, or other drugs causing lethargy

Respiratory Distress (1) Upper Airway Disorders: Brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome, laryngeal paralysis, tracheal collapse, foreign body obstruction, neoplasia of the larynx or trachea
(2) Lower Airway Disorders: Chronic bronchitis, feline asthma, bronchopneumonia, allergic airway disease
(3) Pulmonary Parenchymal Diseases: Pneumonia (bacterial, viral, fungal), pulmonary edema (cardiogenic or non-cardiogenic), pulmonary contusions, neoplasia
(4) Pleural Space Diseases: Pleural effusion, pyothorax, hemothorax, pneumothorax, chylothorax
(5) Cardiac Disorders: Congestive heart failure (especially left-sided), pericardial effusion, cardiomyopathy
(6) Diaphragmatic Disorders: Diaphragmatic hernia, diaphragmatic paralysis
(7) Neuromuscular and CNS Disorders: Tick paralysis, myasthenia gravis, botulism, tetanus, cervical spinal cord trauma
(8) Metabolic and Systemic Conditions: Severe anemia, acidosis, sepsis, hyperthermia, pain or stress-induced tachypnea
(9) Toxins: Smoke inhalation, insecticide poisoning, opioid overdose, venomous bites (e.g., snakes, spiders)
(10) Obesity: Leading to restrictive breathing and reduced lung expansion

Aggressive Behavior (Cat)Rabies, Feline Hyperesthesia Syndrome, Pain-Related Aggression, Territorial Aggression

Aggressive Behavior (Dog) Rabies, Hypothyroidism, Pain-Induced Aggression, Fear-Related Aggression.

Toxin-Related Aggressive Behavior Symptoms: Sudden aggression, hypersalivation, tremors, disorientation; may follow ingestion of toxic substances (e.g., lead, organophosphates).
Treatment Symptomatic: Clomipramine 1–2 mg/kg PO BID; adjust dose based on clinical response and side effects.
Causative: Identify and eliminate toxin source; administer specific antidotes if available (e.g., atropine 0.04 mg/kg IM or IV for organophosphates).
Supportive: IV fluids to promote toxin clearance (60–80 mL/kg/day); activated charcoal (1–4 g/kg PO once) if ingestion was recent.

Gradual Weight Loss (1) Endocrine Disorders: Diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism (cats), hypoadrenocorticism (Addison's disease), insulinoma
(2) Gastrointestinal Disorders: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), intestinal parasites (e.g., hookworms, roundworms), gastrointestinal lymphoma, chronic gastroenteritis
(3) Systemic Infections: Feline immunodeficiency virus infection (FIV), feline leukemia virus (FeLV), fungal infections (e.g., histoplasmosis), ehrlichiosis, anaplasmosis
(4) Neoplasia: Lymphoma, adenocarcinoma, mast cell tumors, various metastatic cancers
(5) Chronic Organ Diseases: Chronic kidney disease (CKD), liver disease (e.g., hepatic lipidosis, cirrhosis), congestive heart failure
(6) Nutritional Deficiencies: Poor-quality diet, anorexia, Protein-Losing Enteropathy(PLE) or nephropathy
(7) Neurological or Musculoskeletal Conditions: Degenerative diseases or chronic pain reducing mobility and appetite
(8) Psychological or Behavioral Factors: Depression, anxiety, stress from environmental changes
(9) Dental Disease: Periodontal disease, stomatitis, tooth root abscesses causing chronic pain and reduced food intake
(10) Geriatric Changes: Age-related metabolic changes, decreased appetite, sarcopenia

Ascites (1) Cardiovascular Diseases: Right-sided congestive heart failure, pericardial effusion, cardiomyopathy (dilated in dogs, hypertrophic in cats), heartworm disease (dogs)
(2) Hepatic Disorders: Chronic hepatitis, hepatic cirrhosis, portosystemic shunt, hepatic neoplasia (e.g., hepatocellular carcinoma)
(3) Hypoalbuminemia: Protein-Losing Enteropathy(PLE), protein-losing nephropathy, severe malnutrition, liver failure
(4) Neoplastic Conditions: Abdominal tumors (e.g., lymphosarcoma, carcinomatosis), metastatic cancers affecting abdominal organs
(5) Infectious Diseases: Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP – especially the wet form), septic peritonitis
(6) Renal Disease: Nephrotic syndrome, chronic kidney disease with secondary hypoalbuminemia
(7) Trauma and Hemorrhage: Abdominal bleeding from trauma, ruptured organ, coagulopathy
(8) Lymphatic Obstruction: Lymphangiectasia, lymphatic neoplasia, abdominal lymph node enlargement
(9) Toxin Exposure: Aflatoxicosis, hepatotoxins causing liver failure and reduced oncotic pressure

Bilirubinuria (1) Hepatic Diseases: Hepatitis, hepatic lipidosis (cats), cirrhosis, cholangiohepatitis, liver neoplasia
(2) Hemolytic Disorders: Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA), hemotropic mycoplasmosis (e.g., Mycoplasma haemofelis in cats), Babesiosis (dogs), Heinz body anemia (cats)
(3) Obstructive Biliary Conditions: Extrahepatic bile duct obstruction (EHBO), gallbladder mucocele (dogs), cholelithiasis, cholangitis
(4) Toxin Exposure: Copper toxicosis (especially in Bedlington Terriers), aflatoxicosis, xylitol toxicity (dogs)
(5) Infectious Diseases: Leptospirosis (dogs), feline infectious peritonitis (FIP – liver involvement), toxoplasmosis
(6) Physiologic (Dogs Only): Mild bilirubinuria can be normal in dogs due to low renal threshold for bilirubin, especially in males
(7) Other Causes: Sepsis with liver involvement, pancreatitis with bile duct compression, hepatocellular damage from neoplasia or trauma.

Pale Mucous Membranes (1) Anemia: Iron deficiency anemia, immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA), blood loss anemia (e.g., due to trauma, gastrointestinal ulcers, parasites), aplastic anemia, anemia of chronic disease
(2) Shock and Poor Perfusion: Hypovolemic shock, cardiogenic shock, septic shock, severe dehydration
(3) Internal or External Hemorrhage: Hemangiosarcoma (especially splenic or hepatic), ruptured organ, coagulopathies (e.g., rodenticide toxicity, disseminated intravascular coagulation – DIC)
(4) Parasitic Infections: Heavy flea infestation (especially in puppies and kittens), hookworm infection (Ancylostoma spp.), Mycoplasma haemofelis (cats)
(5) Chronic Kidney Disease: Decreased erythropoietin production causing non-regenerative anemia
(6) Toxins: Zinc toxicity, onion/garlic toxicity, acetaminophen toxicity (especially in cats)
(7) Neoplastic Diseases: Bone marrow suppression from leukemia or metastatic cancers
(8) Others: Hypothermia, severe pain, congestive heart failure

Tachycardia (1) Physiological Causes: Stress, excitement, fear, pain, exercise
(2) Cardiac Disorders: Congestive heart failure, dilated cardiomyopathy, myocarditis, pericardial effusion, arrhythmias (e.g., supraventricular or ventricular tachycardia)
(3) Shock and Hypovolemia: Hemorrhagic shock, dehydration, hypovolemic shock, anaphylactic shock
(4) Anemia: Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA), blood loss anemia, chronic kidney disease-related anemia
(5) Respiratory Diseases: Hypoxia due to pneumonia, pulmonary edema, pleural effusion, upper airway obstruction
(6) Endocrine Disorders: Hyperthyroidism (especially in cats), pheochromocytoma
(7) Pain and Fever: Acute or chronic pain, infectious diseases causing fever
(8) Drug or Toxin Effects: Atropine, epinephrine, beta-agonists, methylxanthines (e.g., theobromine from chocolate)
(9) Metabolic Disorders: Hypoglycemia, electrolyte imbalances (e.g., hypokalemia, hypocalcemia).

Hematemesis (1) Gastrointestinal Ulcers: Gastric ulcers, duodenal ulcers, NSAID toxicity, corticosteroid use
(2) Foreign Body Ingestion: Sharp objects causing mucosal injury
(3) Neoplasia: Gastric tumors (e.g., adenocarcinoma, lymphoma), esophageal tumors
(4) Coagulopathies: Rodenticide toxicity, thrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), liver failure
(5) Severe Gastritis: Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis (HGE), uremic gastritis, infectious gastritis (e.g., parvovirus in dogs)
(6) Esophageal Disorders: Esophagitis, esophageal varices, esophageal trauma
(7) Toxin Ingestion: Heavy metals, caustic substances, chocolate, plants (e.g., lilies in cats)
(8) Systemic Diseases: Chronic kidney disease, liver disease with portal hypertension
(9) Trauma: Blunt abdominal trauma causing gastrointestinal hemorrhage.

Dysuria (1) Lower Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs): Bacterial cystitis, urethritis
(2) urolithiasis (bladder stones): Bladder stones, urethral stones
(3) Urethral Obstruction: Urethral plugs (especially in male cats), strictures, neoplasia
(4) Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease (FLUTD): Idiopathic cystitis, obstructive and non-obstructive forms
(5) Prostatic Disease (Dogs): Benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis, prostatic neoplasia
(6) Neoplasia: Transitional cell carcinoma of bladder or urethra
(7) Neurologic Disorders: Lower motor neuron bladder dysfunction, spinal cord injury affecting urination
(8) Trauma: Pelvic or urethral trauma causing swelling or obstruction
(9) Congenital Abnormalities: Ectopic ureters, urethral malformations.

Polyuria (1) Endocrine Disorders: Diabetes mellitus, hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing's disease), hypoadrenocorticism (Addison's disease), diabetes insipidus
(2) Renal Disease: Chronic kidney disease, acute kidney injury
(3) Liver Disease: Hepatic insufficiency, portosystemic shunt
(4) Medications: Diuretics, corticosteroids, excessive fluid therapy
(5) Psychogenic Polydipsia: Behavioral excessive water intake
(6) Infections: Pyelonephritis, leptospirosis
(7) Hypercalcemia: Secondary to malignancy or other causes
(8) Other Conditions: Hyperthyroidism (cats), hypokalemia.

Chronic Large-Bowel Diarrhea (1) Inflammatory Conditions: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), lymphocytic-plasmacytic colitis, eosinophilic colitis
(2) Infectious Causes: Clostridium perfringens overgrowth, Tritrichomonas foetus (cats), Campylobacter spp., fungal colitis (e.g., Histoplasma)
(3) Parasitic Infections: Trichuris vulpis (dogs), Giardia spp., hookworms
(4) Dietary Factors: Dietary intolerance, dietary allergy, abrupt diet changes
(5) Neoplastic Causes: Colorectal polyps, adenocarcinoma, lymphoma
(6) Antibiotic-Responsive Diarrhea: Chronic colitis responsive to tylosin or metronidazole
(7) Stress-Related Conditions: Stress colitis (especially in dogs)
(8) Other Conditions: Fiber-responsive colitis, irritable bowel syndrome (functional colonic disorder).

Diarrhea Containing Fresh Blood and Mucus (1) Parasitic Infections: Trichuris vulpis (whipworms in dogs), hookworms, Giardia spp.
(2) Bacterial Infections: Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli
(3) Inflammatory Conditions: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), lymphocytic-plasmacytic colitis, eosinophilic colitis
(4) Dietary Indiscretion or Allergy: Sudden diet change, dietary intolerance, food allergy
(5) Stress Colitis: Acute colitis triggered by stress (especially in dogs)
(6) Neoplastic Conditions: Colorectal polyps, rectal adenocarcinoma
(7) Foreign Body or Obstruction: Rectal or colonic irritation from foreign material
(8) Antibiotic-Responsive Diarrhea: Clostridial overgrowth responsive to tylosin or metronidazole.

Edematous Anus (1) Anal Sac Disorders: Anal sacculitis, anal sac abscess, impacted anal sacs
(2) Perianal Infections or Inflammation: Perianal fistula (common in German Shepherds), perianal dermatitis, bacterial or fungal infections
(3) Gastrointestinal Parasites: Whipworms (Trichuris vulpis in dogs), tapeworms, roundworms
(4) Rectal or Colonic Inflammation: Colitis, proctitis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
(5) Rectal Prolapse: Partial or complete protrusion of rectal tissue causing local swelling
(6) Neoplastic Conditions: Perianal adenoma, anal sac adenocarcinoma, rectal tumors
(7) Trauma or Irritation: Excessive licking or scooting, trauma from hard stools or foreign bodies
(8) Allergic Reactions: Perianal swelling due to food allergies or environmental allergens.

Rectal Prolapse (1) Gastrointestinal Parasites: Heavy infestation with roundworms, hookworms, whipworms
(2) Severe Diarrhea: Chronic or acute diarrhea causing excessive straining
(3) Constipation or Tenesmus: Prolonged straining due to fecal impaction, colitis, or proctitis
(4) Rectal or Colonic Disorders: Colitis, rectal tumors, rectal polyps
(5) Neurological Disorders: Spinal cord disease affecting defecation control, cauda equina syndrome
(6) Perineal Hernia: Weakness of pelvic diaphragm causing straining and prolapse
(7) Iatrogenic Causes: Post-surgical complications, improper enema administration
(8) Young Age: More common in puppies and kittens due to gastrointestinal infections or congenital weakness.

Black Tarry Feces (Melena) (1) Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage: Gastric ulcers, duodenal ulcers, gastrointestinal neoplasia, gastritis
(2) Coagulopathies: Rodenticide toxicity, immune-mediated thrombocytopenia, liver failure (reduced clotting factor production)
(3) Ingestion of Blood: Oral bleeding (e.g., dental disease, oral tumors), swallowing blood from epistaxis (nose bleeding)
(4) Medications: NSAIDs (e.g., carprofen, meloxicam), corticosteroids causing GI ulceration
(5) Systemic Disorders: Hepatic disease, chronic kidney disease (uremic gastritis), hypoadrenocorticism (Addison’s disease)
(6) Parasitic Infections: Hookworms or other blood-sucking intestinal parasites
(7) Foreign Bodies: GI obstruction or trauma leading to ulceration and bleeding.

Unsuccessful Attempts to Defecate (Tenesmus) (1) Colorectal Disorders: Constipation, colitis, rectal neoplasia, rectal stricture, anal sacculitis, proctitis
(2) Anorectal Conditions: Perineal hernia, anal sac abscess, anal gland impaction, rectal prolapse
(3) Obstructive Causes: Foreign bodies in rectum, pelvic fracture narrowing the pelvic canal, mass compressing colon or rectum
(4) Neurological Disorders: Lumbosacral stenosis, spinal cord injury affecting defecation reflex
(5) Parasitic Infections: Whipworms (Trichuris vulpis), heavy intestinal parasite load
(6) Inflammatory Conditions: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), granulomatous colitis
(7) Others: Painful defecation due to perianal fistulas, post-surgical pain in pelvic/anal region.

Lameness (1) Orthopedic Disorders: Osteoarthritis, hip dysplasia, elbow dysplasia, cranial cruciate ligament rupture, patellar luxation, panosteitis, osteochondritis dissecans (OCD), Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease
(2) Trauma-Related Conditions: Fractures, ligament sprains, muscle strains, joint dislocations, soft tissue injuries
(3) Inflammatory and Infectious Disorders: Septic arthritis, Lyme disease, anaplasmosis, immune-mediated polyarthritis (IMPA), myositis
(4) Neoplastic Conditions: Osteosarcoma, soft tissue sarcoma affecting limbs or joints
(5) Neurological Disorders: Intervertebral disc disease (IVDD), lumbosacral stenosis, nerve root tumors, degenerative myelopathy
(6) Congenital or Developmental Disorders: Angular limb deformities, dwarfism-related limb abnormalities
(7) Other Conditions: Nail bed infections, overgrown nails, paw pad injuries, arthritis secondary to obesity

Pica and Coprophagia (1) Nutritional Deficiencies: Iron deficiency, zinc deficiency, vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency, fiber deficiency
(2) Gastrointestinal Disorders: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), intestinal parasites (e.g., hookworms, roundworms), malabsorption syndromes
(3) Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders: Diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism (cats), Cushing’s disease (dogs)
(4) Neurological and Behavioral Conditions: Cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), boredom, anxiety, stress, attention-seeking behavior
(5) Environmental Factors: Lack of enrichment, insufficient physical activity, confinement or isolation
(6) Learned Behavior: Reinforced by owner attention or stress-relieving behavior
(7) Other Conditions: Starvation or previous history of neglect, inappropriate feeding schedules, mother dog/cat consuming feces to clean den area

Dyspnea (1) Upper Respiratory Tract Disorders: Brachycephalic airway syndrome, laryngeal paralysis, tracheal collapse, nasopharyngeal stenosis, foreign body obstruction, laryngeal tumors
(2) Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders: Pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, feline asthma, bronchiectasis, parasitic infections (e.g., lungworms), neoplasia
(3) Pleural Space Disorders: Pleural effusion, pneumothorax, pyothorax, chylothorax, hemothorax
(4) Pulmonary Parenchymal Diseases: Pulmonary edema (cardiogenic or non-cardiogenic), pulmonary contusion, pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary thromboembolism.
(5) Cardiac Conditions: Congestive heart failure, cardiomyopathy (e.g., hypertrophic in cats, dilated in dogs), pericardial effusion
(6) Abdominal Disorders Causing Diaphragmatic Compromise: Gastric dilatation-volvulus (GDV), ascites, diaphragmatic hernia, abdominal masses
(7) Hematologic and Metabolic Disorders: Severe anemia, acidosis, hypoxemia, hyperthermia, pain or stress-induced tachypnea

Hyperesthesia (1) Neurological Disorders: Feline hyperesthesia syndrome, intervertebral disc disease, spinal cord tumors, syringomyelia, epilepsy, encephalitis
(2) Musculoskeletal Conditions: Arthritis, muscle strain, myositis, trauma to spine or limbs
(3) Dermatological Causes: Flea allergy dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, external parasites (e.g., mites, fleas), allergic skin disease
(4) Behavioral and Psychological Factors: Anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, stress-induced hyperesthesia
(5) Other Conditions: Toxins (e.g., pyrethrin toxicity in cats), hepatic encephalopathy, feline infectious peritonitis (neurological form), hyperthyroidism (especially in cats)

Behavioral Changes (1) Neurological Disorders: Brain tumors, encephalitis, epilepsy, hydrocephalus, cognitive dysfunction syndrome (canine or feline dementia), head trauma
(2) Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders: Hyperthyroidism (especially in cats), hypothyroidism (especially in dogs), hepatic encephalopathy, diabetes mellitus, electrolyte imbalances
(3) Psychological and Environmental Factors: Anxiety, phobias, stress, changes in environment or routine, lack of socialization, past trauma or abuse
(4) Pain-Related Causes: Arthritis, dental disease, gastrointestinal discomfort, intervertebral disc disease, pancreatitis
(5) Toxicities: Lead poisoning, ingestion of psychoactive or toxic substances (e.g., marijuana, xylitol, organophosphates)
(6) Infectious Diseases: Rabies, toxoplasmosis, feline infectious peritonitis (neurological form), canine distemper (neurological form)

Paraparesis(weakness in hind legs) (1) Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD): Common in chondrodystrophic dog breeds; compression of spinal cord in thoracolumbar region
(2) Degenerative Myelopathy: Progressive spinal cord degeneration, especially in older large breed dogs (e.g., German Shepherds)
(3) Spinal Trauma: Fractures, luxations, or direct trauma to thoracolumbar spine causing spinal cord injury
(4) Fibrocartilaginous Embolism (FCE): Sudden spinal cord infarction often causing asymmetrical paraparesis in dogs
(5) Lumbosacral Stenosis (Cauda Equina Syndrome): Compression of nerves at the lumbosacral junction, common in large breed dogs
(6) Neoplasia: Spinal cord tumors (e.g., meningioma, lymphoma) causing compression or infiltration of spinal cord
(7) Inflammatory/Infectious Disorders: Diskospondylitis, meningomyelitis (e.g., from Toxoplasma, FIP in cats), granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis (GME)
(8) Congenital Disorders: Vertebral malformations (e.g., hemivertebrae, spina bifida), seen in young animals
(9) Nutritional Deficiencies: Thiamine deficiency, particularly in cats fed raw fish or unbalanced diets
(10) Toxicity: Tick paralysis, botulism, organophosphate toxicity leading to lower motor neuron signs

Serous or Mucopurulent Oculonasal Discharge (1) Canine Distemper Virus (CDV): Common in unvaccinated dogs; causes oculonasal discharge, fever, and neurologic signs
(2) Infectious Canine Tracheobronchitis (Kennel Cough): Caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica and viruses (e.g., parainfluenza); leads to nasal discharge and coughing
(3) Canine Adenovirus Type 2: Contributes to kennel cough; causes ocular and nasal discharge
(4) Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 (FHV-1): Causes feline viral rhinotracheitis; results in conjunctivitis, keratitis, and oculonasal discharge
(5) Feline Calicivirus (FCV): Respiratory virus causing nasal and ocular discharge, oral ulcers
(6) Chlamydia felis: Bacterial infection in cats; primarily causes conjunctivitis and serous to mucopurulent discharge
(7) Mycoplasma spp.: May cause conjunctivitis and upper respiratory signs in cats and dogs
(8) Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP): Especially dry form can cause ocular discharge and uveitis
(9) Foreign Body: Nasal or ocular foreign material can cause localized mucopurulent discharge
(10) Allergic Rhinitis: Non-infectious inflammation leading to serous nasal discharge
(11) Dental Disease: Infections involving upper teeth roots can cause nasal discharge
(12) Nasal Neoplasia: Tumors in nasal cavity (e.g., adenocarcinoma, lymphoma) may result in unilateral or bilateral discharge
(13) Cryptococcosis (Cats > Dogs): Fungal infection leading to mucopurulent nasal discharge, often with facial swelling

Tetraparesis (1) Cervical Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD): Compression of the cervical spinal cord can result in weakness or paralysis of all four limbs
(2) Atlantoaxial Subluxation: Instability or malformation of the first two cervical vertebrae, especially in toy breeds, leading to spinal cord compression and tetraparesis
(3) Cervical Spondylomyelopathy (Wobbler Syndrome): Common in large-breed dogs; cervical spinal cord compression causes progressive tetraparesis
(4) Trauma: Vertebral fractures or luxations causing spinal cord injury in the cervical region can result in tetraparesis
(5) Myasthenia Gravis: Neuromuscular disorder leading to episodic or progressive generalized weakness, including all four limbs
(6) Polyradiculoneuritis (Coonhound Paralysis): Immune-mediated inflammation of peripheral nerves causing acute flaccid tetraparesis
(7) Tick Paralysis: Neurotoxin from ticks (e.g., Ixodes, Dermacentor) interferes with neuromuscular transmission, leading to tetraparesis
(8) Botulism: Toxin from Clostridium botulinum causes generalized flaccid paralysis starting with the hindlimbs and progressing to tetraparesis
(9) Meningomyelitis: Inflammation of the spinal cord and meninges from infectious or immune-mediated causes can result in tetraparesis
(10) Neoplasia: Tumors affecting the cervical spinal cord or nerve roots can compress neural structures and lead to tetraparesis
(11) Ischemic Myelopathy (Fibrocartilaginous Embolism – FCE): Spinal cord infarction, though more commonly affecting one side, can rarely cause tetraparesis if in cervical region
(12) Hypokalemic Myopathy (especially in Cats): Severe hypokalemia leads to muscle weakness or paralysis, including all limbs
(13) Metabolic or Toxic Neuropathy: Conditions like diabetes mellitus or exposure to certain toxins (e.g., lead) can cause polyneuropathy with tetraparesis
(14) Thiamine Deficiency (Cats): Neurological dysfunction due to vitamin B1 deficiency can occasionally include tetraparesis
(15) Degenerative Myelopathy (advanced): Though typically starts in the hind limbs, severe progression can involve all limbs

Acute Vomiting After Eating or Drinking (1) Gastric Dilatation-Volvulus (GDV): Life-threatening condition in dogs causing rapid stomach distension and rotation, often with acute vomiting after eating
(2) Acute Gastritis: Inflammation of the stomach lining due to dietary indiscretion, spoiled food, toxins, or medications
(3) Foreign Body Ingestion: Obstruction or irritation of the gastrointestinal tract causing vomiting shortly after ingestion
(4) Food Allergies or Intolerances: Reaction to specific ingredients in food may trigger vomiting soon after eating
(5) Esophageal Disease (e.g., Megaesophagus): Dilated esophagus leads to regurgitation or vomiting immediately after food or water intake
(6) Pancreatitis (Acute): Inflammation of the pancreas often triggered by fatty meals, resulting in vomiting shortly after eating
(7) Intestinal Obstruction: Acute blockage from masses, intussusception, or volvulus causing vomiting soon after eating
(8) Acute Kidney Injury: Uremic toxins may stimulate vomiting after intake of food or water
(9) Infectious Gastroenteritis: Caused by viruses (e.g., parvovirus, coronavirus) or bacteria (e.g., Salmonella), often presenting with vomiting post-meal
(10) Toxin Ingestion: Ingestion of substances like antifreeze, plants, or chemicals may cause acute vomiting shortly after eating or drinking
(11) Pyloric Obstruction: Congenital or acquired narrowing at the stomach outlet, resulting in vomiting after eating
(12) Medication-Induced: Certain antibiotics, NSAIDs, or dewormers may cause vomiting shortly after oral administration
(13) Liver Disease (Acute Hepatitis or Toxicosis): Impaired hepatic function may cause vomiting after meals
(14) Acute Vestibular Disease: In cases of motion sickness or sudden vestibular dysfunction, vomiting may occur post-ingestion
(15) Addisonian Crisis (Hypoadrenocorticism): Acute adrenal insufficiency can trigger vomiting, especially following stress or food intake

Blood in Vomitus (Hematemesis) (1) Gastric Ulceration: Caused by NSAIDs, corticosteroids, or stress; leads to bleeding in the stomach
(2) Foreign Body Ingestion: Sharp objects may cause trauma and bleeding in the esophagus or stomach
(3) Esophagitis: Inflammation of the esophagus due to acid reflux, caustic ingestion, or chronic vomiting
(4) Gastric Neoplasia: Tumors such as adenocarcinoma or lymphoma can erode vessels causing bleeding
(5) Coagulopathies: Conditions like rodenticide toxicity, DIC, or liver failure lead to poor clotting and bleeding
(6) Liver Disease: Advanced hepatic dysfunction may cause coagulopathy and gastrointestinal bleeding
(7) Pancreatitis (Severe): Inflammation may extend to nearby vessels causing hemorrhagic vomiting
(8) Infectious Gastroenteritis: Parvovirus or bacterial infections like Clostridium may cause intestinal bleeding
(9) Duodenal Ulcers: Secondary to chronic disease, stress, or drugs; leads to blood in vomitus
(10) Thrombocytopenia: Low platelet count from immune-mediated disease or tick-borne illness can cause bleeding
(11) Toxin Ingestion: Substances like NSAIDs, corrosive chemicals, or anticoagulants can induce bleeding
(12) Heavy Metal Poisoning: Zinc or lead toxicity may irritate the GI lining and cause hemorrhage
(13) Severe Kidney Disease: Uremic gastritis from high toxin levels in blood may lead to gastric bleeding
(14) Megaesophagus with Regurgitation: If complicated by esophagitis or ulceration, blood may appear
(15) Trauma: Direct injury to the abdomen or GI tract may lead to internal bleeding and hematemesis

Weak hind leg, periodically paralysis. (1) Narcolepsy-Cataplexy Syndrome: A primary neurological disorder in dogs (especially Doberman Pinschers, Labrador Retrievers, and Dachshunds) characterized by sudden loss of muscle tone often triggered by excitement or eating
(2) Congenital Narcolepsy: Inherited in some breeds; involves dysfunction of the hypocretin (orexin) system in the brain
(3) Secondary Narcolepsy-Cataplexy: May be associated with other neurological diseases, trauma, or brain tumors affecting the hypothalamus or brainstem
(4) Hypocretin (Orexin) Deficiency: A key underlying factor in most forms of narcolepsy with cataplexy in dogs
(5) Immune-Mediated Encephalitis: Inflammation of brain tissue can occasionally present with episodic muscle collapse
(6) Storage Diseases: Rare inherited metabolic disorders (e.g., Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinosis) that can include cataplexy-like symptoms
(7) Head Trauma: Traumatic brain injury affecting sleep-wake regulation centers may result in episodic collapse mimicking cataplexy

Hemorrhagic Urethral Discharge (1) urolithiasis (bladder stones): Bladder or urethral stones causing mucosal irritation or trauma
(2) Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Severe or chronic infections may damage the urethral lining, leading to bleeding
(3) Prostatic Disease (Dogs): Prostatitis, prostatic cysts, or neoplasia can cause bloody discharge from the urethra
(4) Neoplasia: Tumors of the bladder, prostate, urethra, or vagina may cause hemorrhagic discharge
(5) Urethral Trauma: Iatrogenic (e.g., catheterization), accidents, or mating injuries
(6) Coagulopathies: Conditions such as thrombocytopenia or rodenticide toxicity may lead to spontaneous bleeding
(7) Urethritis: Inflammation of the urethra from infection or autoimmune causes
(8) Penile or Vaginal Inflammation/Infection: May appear as urethral bleeding due to anatomical proximity

Purulent Urethral Discharge (1) Bacterial Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Common cause in both dogs and cats, especially with ascending infections from the perineal area
(2) Prostatitis (Dogs): Bacterial infection of the prostate gland, often seen in intact males
(3) Urethritis: Inflammation of the urethra due to infection, trauma, or uroliths
(4) Pyometra (Female Dogs and Cats): Closed-cervix pyometra may cause overflow purulent discharge through the urethra
(5) Urinary Tract Stones (Urolithiasis): Stones causing irritation or secondary infections may lead to purulent discharge
(6) Neoplasia of the Urogenital Tract: Tumors of the bladder, prostate, or urethra can cause infection and purulent discharge
(7) Congenital Urogenital Defects: May predispose to chronic infection and intermittent discharge
(8) Penile or Vaginal Infections: Local infections may mimic urethral discharge, particularly in intact animals

Arched Back (1) Abdominal Pain (Acute Abdomen): Gastroenteritis, pancreatitis, peritonitis, or intestinal obstruction can cause pain-induced posturing
(2) Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD): Compression of spinal nerves may cause back pain, leading to an arched posture
(3) Spinal Trauma: Injuries to the spine from accidents or falls may lead to pain and arching
(4) Meningitis or Myelitis: Inflammation of the meninges or spinal cord causes pain and stiffness
(5) Pancreatitis: Severe abdominal pain may result in an arched posture ("praying position")
(6) Urinary Tract Obstruction: Pain from urinary blockage or bladder distension can cause arching
(7) Constipation or Tenesmus: Straining to defecate may cause arching due to discomfort
(8) Discospondylitis: Infection of the intervertebral disc space and adjacent vertebral endplates
(9) Neoplasia (Spinal or Abdominal): Tumors causing discomfort or neurologic deficits
(10) Hepatobiliary Disease: Liver pain (e.g., hepatitis or hepatic abscess) may lead to arching

Stiff Gait (1) Degenerative Joint Disease (Osteoarthritis): Chronic joint inflammation leads to stiffness, especially after rest
(2) Hip Dysplasia: Malformation of the hip joint causes pain and restricted movement
(3) Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD): Spinal cord compression can cause stiffness and neurologic deficits
(4) Meningitis or Meningoencephalitis: Inflammation of the central nervous system can lead to rigid movement
(5) Tetanus: Clostridium tetani toxin causes generalized muscle rigidity and stiff gait
(6) Polymyositis: Inflammation of multiple muscles results in weakness and stiffness
(7) Spondylosis Deformans: Bony growths along the spine can restrict flexibility and cause stiffness
(8) Myasthenia Gravis (less common presentation): Muscle fatigue and weakness may manifest with stiffness early in movement
(9) Hypothyroidism (Dogs): Associated with neuromuscular dysfunction and stiffness
(10) Tick Paralysis (early stages): May initially cause stiffness before progressing to flaccid paralysis

Scrotal Enlargement (1) Testicular Tumors: Seminoma, Sertoli cell tumor, interstitial cell tumor
(2) Orchitis and Epididymitis: Infection or inflammation of testis and epididymis
(3) Scrotal Hernia: Protrusion of abdominal contents into scrotum causing swelling
(4) Hydrocele: Accumulation of fluid within the tunica vaginalis
(5) Hematocele: Blood accumulation in the scrotal sac due to trauma
(6) Scrotal Abscess: Localized infection leading to pus formation
(7) Cryptorchidism (enlarged retained testicle): Undescended testicle may enlarge or become neoplastic
(8) Scrotal Edema: Generalized swelling due to heart failure, lymphatic obstruction, or trauma
(9) Testicular Torsion: Twisting of spermatic cord causing acute swelling and pain
(10) Neoplasia of Scrotal Skin: Tumors arising from scrotal skin or subcutis can cause enlargement

Pollakiuria(frequent urination) (1) Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Common cause of frequent urination due to inflammation and irritation
(2) urolithiasis (bladder stones): Bladder or urethral stones causing irritation and incomplete voiding
(3) Feline Idiopathic Cystitis (FIC): Sterile inflammation of the bladder common in cats
(4) Bladder Neoplasia: Transitional cell carcinoma or other tumors causing irritation or obstruction
(5) Prostatic Disease (Dogs): Benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis, or prostatic neoplasia
(6) Diabetes Mellitus: Osmotic diuresis from glucosuria leading to frequent urination
(7) Chronic Kidney Disease: Increased urine production with more frequent voiding
(8) Hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing’s Disease): Causes polyuria and potentially pollakiuria
(9) Bladder Trauma or Irritation: From surgery, catheterization, or trauma
(10) Neurologic Disorders: Disruption of normal micturition reflex causing frequent attempts to urinate

Stranguria(painful and difficult urination) (1) Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Inflammation of the bladder and urethra causing painful and difficult urination
(2) urolithiasis (bladder stones): Bladder or urethral stones obstructing urine flow
(3) Feline Idiopathic Cystitis (FIC): A common cause of painful urination in cats without infection
(4) Urethral Obstruction: Especially in male cats, due to plugs, crystals, or stones
(5) Bladder Neoplasia: Tumors like transitional cell carcinoma causing inflammation or blockage
(6) Prostatic Disease (Dogs): Enlarged prostate compressing urethra causing difficulty urinating
(7) Urethritis: Inflammation of the urethra due to infection or trauma
(8) Trauma to Lower Urinary Tract: Injury to bladder or urethra causing pain and straining
(9) Neurologic Disorders: Spinal Cord or Peripheral Nerve Dysfunction affecting bladder emptying

Chronic Diarrhoea. (1) Infectious Causes: Giardiasis, Tritrichomonas foetus (cats), Cryptosporidiosis, chronic bacterial overgrowth, Feline coronavirus (FCoV), parvovirus (chronic cases), fungal enteritis (e.g., histoplasmosis)
(2) Inflammatory and Immune-Mediated Disorders: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), food-responsive enteropathy, antibiotic-responsive enteropathy, lymphocytic-plasmacytic enteritis
(3) Parasitic Infections: Whipworms (Trichuris vulpis), hookworms, roundworms (chronic infestations)
(4) Dietary Causes: Food intolerance, food allergy, dietary indiscretion, poor-quality diet
(5) Neoplastic Conditions: Lymphoma, adenocarcinoma, mast cell tumors (GI tract)
(6) Malabsorption and Maldigestion Syndromes: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), Protein-Losing Enteropathy(PLE)
(7) Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders: Hyperthyroidism (cats), hypoadrenocorticism (Addison’s disease), hepatic insufficiency
(8) Other Conditions: Chronic intussusception, partial GI obstruction, intestinal fibrosis, motility disorders

Unilateral Mucopurulent Nasal Discharge (1) Infectious Causes: Nasal aspergillosis (dogs), bacterial rhinitis, chronic upper respiratory tract infection
(2) Neoplastic Conditions: Nasal adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, lymphoma
(3) Foreign Bodies: Grass awns, plant material, or other foreign material lodged in nasal passage
(4) Dental Disease: Tooth root abscess (especially upper 4th premolar), oronasal fistula
(5) Fungal Infections: Cryptococcosis (more common in cats), nasal aspergillosis
(6) Congenital/Structural Abnormalities: Nasal polyps (more common in cats), nasal septal deviation
(7) Trauma: Nasal bone fracture or injury leading to secondary infection

Testicular Enlargement in Dogs and Cats (1) Causes:
• Testicular Tumors: Sertoli cell tumor, interstitial (Leydig) cell tumor, seminoma — common in older, intact male dogs; rare in cats.
• Orchitis/Epididymitis: Inflammation of testis or epididymis often due to bacterial infection (e.g., Brucella canis in dogs).
• Testicular Torsion: Twisting of the spermatic cord, usually in retained (cryptorchid) testes.
• Scrotal Trauma or Hematoma: May lead to swelling, pain, or bruising.
• Cryptorchidism: Undescended testicle prone to neoplasia and torsion.
(2) Clinical Signs:
• Unilateral or bilateral swelling of the testes.
• Pain or discomfort, especially if due to infection or torsion.
• Behavioral changes, feminization syndrome (Sertoli cell tumor).
(3) Diagnosis:
• Physical examination and palpation of testes.
• Ultrasound of scrotal contents.
• Fine-needle aspiration or biopsy (with caution in suspected tumors).
• Bloodwork, hormone assays, and Brucella testing in dogs.
(4) Treatment:
• Neoplasia: Bilateral or unilateral orchiectomy (castration) is the treatment of choice. Malignant tumors may require staging and adjunct therapy.
• Infectious Orchitis/Epididymitis: Antibiotic therapy based on culture/sensitivity. Castration is often curative and preferred to prevent spread.
• Testicular Torsion: Emergency surgical removal of affected testicle.
• Trauma or Hematoma: Supportive care or surgical intervention depending on severity.
(5) Prevention:
• Early neutering prevents most causes including tumors, torsion, and infections.
• Routine examination of intact males, especially older dogs.
Note: Testicular enlargement is more common and clinically significant in dogs than cats.

Cheilitis Symptoms:Scratching or rubbing at lips, hair around lips matted with thick yellowish-brown discharge, swelling of lips, excessive salivation (ptyalism).
Treatment Clip surrounding hair, clean area with Hexachlorophene 3% solution, apply Chlortetracycline HCl 3% ointment.

Optic Neuritis Symptoms:Sudden or progressive blindness.
Treatment Azathioprine(Imuran tab:) 2 mg/kg PO SID or Cyclosporine 3.3–6.7 mg/kg PO SID for 30 days.

Silent HeatFailure of outward behavioral signs of estrus despite normal ovarian cycling.
Symptoms:: Female infertility, no visible estrus signs despite ovulation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Monitor ovarian function via progesterone or LH testing.
Specific:: Estradiol 0.1 mg/kg (IM or SC) on days 3, 5, and 7 after mating.

Acute Diarrhea (Dietary)A sudden onset of diarrhea often triggered by dietary indiscretion, abrupt diet change, or ingestion of spoiled food.
Symptoms:: Loose or watery stools, possible mild abdominal discomfort, occasional vomiting, and reduced appetite.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Diphenoxylate tablets; Butylscopolamine (Spanil) injection to relieve cramping.
Causative:: Address dietary triggers and prevent future indiscriminate eating.
Supportive:: Maintain hydration; provide a bland diet (boiled chicken and rice); administer Cefuroxime tablets if bacterial overgrowth or secondary infection suspected.

Dietary ConstipationConstipation due to excess fiber, ingestion of hair, bones, or other indigestible materials, often in dehydrated patients.
Symptoms:: Infrequent or difficult defecation, hard stools, abdominal discomfort, and possible straining.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Loperamide 0.2 mg/kg PO BID for mild relief.
Causative:: Remove dietary cause and adjust feeding to include adequate moisture and digestibility.
Supportive:: Bisacodyl 0.12 mg/kg PO as needed; Docusate sodium 50–100 mg PO BID or 10 ml of 5% solution mixed with 100 ml water for rectal enema; ensure adequate hydration.

Sepsis-Induced Oliguria or AnuriaA severe reduction or absence of urine output associated with systemic sepsis and decreased renal perfusion.
Symptoms:: Markedly reduced or absent urination, lethargy, signs of systemic illness, and potential hypotension.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Dobutamine injection starting at 2–5 µg/kg/min IV infusion, titrated to effect.
Causative:: Treat underlying sepsis with broad-spectrum antibiotics and control infection source.
Supportive:: Provide IV fluids, correct electrolyte imbalances, and consider vasopressors if hypotension persists despite fluids and inotropes.

Cheyletiellosis ("Walking Dandruff") Symptoms:Scaling and alopecia on dorsum in dogs; severe pruritus, crusty eruptions in cats; highly contagious to dogs, cats, and humans.
Treatment Weekly lime sulfur dips, topical parasitic shampoo or spray for 4 weeks, Ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg (SC or PO q2wk), topical Selamectin 10 mg/kg monthly, treat environment with insecticidal spray.

Ethylene Glycol ToxicityA life-threatening poisoning caused by ingestion of antifreeze containing ethylene glycol. Rapid metabolism leads to severe metabolic acidosis, calcium oxalate crystal deposition, and acute renal failure.
Symptoms:: Vomiting, ataxia, depression, polyuria/polydipsia, seizures, coma, and signs of acute kidney injury such as oliguria or anuria.
TreatmentAntidotal:: Fomepizole 20 mg/kg IV initially, then 15 mg/kg IV at 12h, 10 mg/kg at 24h, and 5 mg/kg at 36h (preferred in dogs). Ethanol IV or PO as an alternative if fomepizole is unavailable.
Supportive:: Aggressive IV fluids (0.9% NaCl) to correct dehydration and acidosis, electrolyte balance, anti-seizure therapy if needed.
Advanced:: Hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis in severe renal compromise.
Prognosis:: Good if treated within 8h in dogs or 3h in cats; poor once renal failure develops.

Nasopharyngeal Polyps Symptoms:Sneezing, inspiratory dyspnea, nasal and otic discharge, dysphagia, head tilt, nystagmus, chronic URT infections in young cats.
Treatment Gentle traction removal of polyp, soft palate incision for access, prednisolone 1.5–2 mg/kg SC/IM, or dexamethasone 0.5–2.0 mg/kg SC/IM.

Urinary Incontinence (Bladder Overdistension) Symptoms:Urinary leakage or incontinence.
Treatment Estriol, Ephedrine 1 mg/kg PO BID.

Eosinophilic Pneumonitis Symptoms:Persistent cough.
Treatment Bromhexine 8 mg/dog IM BID or 2 mg PO BID, Prednisolone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 2 weeks.

Urinary Incontinence (Neoplastic Bladder) Symptoms:Urinary leakage or retention.
Treatment Ephedrine 1 mg/kg PO BID, Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO SID.

Urinary Incontinence (Vestibulovaginal Stenosis) Symptoms:Urinary incontinence.
Treatment Estriol, Ephedrine 1 mg/kg PO BID.

Prostatic Disease Symptoms:Anuria, oliguria, hematuria, urinary incontinence.
Treatment Estriol, Ephedrine 1 mg/kg PO BID.

Urinary Incontinence (Bladder Retroflexion) Symptoms:Urinary incontinence, perineal swelling.
Treatment Ephedrine 1 mg/kg PO BID.

Hyperthermia (Seizure-related in Cats) Symptoms:Elevated body temperature following cluster or prolonged seizures.
Treatment Pregabalin 4 mg/kg PO BID, Dantrolene 1 mg/kg PO BID or 3 mg/kg IV, Clonazepam 0.5 mg/kg PO BID, Gabapentin 30 mg/kg/day divided BID.

Canine Distemper Biphasic fever, serous to mucopurulent nasal and ocular discharge, coughing, vomiting, diarrhea, myoclonus, seizures, ataxia, and hyperkeratosis of nasal planum and footpads ("hard pad disease").
Treatment Primarily supportive: fluids, nutritional support, antipyretics, and broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate) for secondary bacterial infections. For seizures, use diazepam or phenobarbital. Myoclonus may require levetiracetam or gabapentin. Immune stimulants (e.g., interferon omega) may be helpful in early cases. Isolate affected animals and ensure thorough disinfection.

Tropical Canine Pancytopenia Profound anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia with pallor, petechiae, ecchymoses, epistaxis (nose bleeding), pyrexia, lethargy, and increased susceptibility to secondary infections. Commonly associated with Ehrlichia, Babesia, or co-infections with other tick-borne agents.
Treatment Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO BID for 21–28 days; imidocarb dipropionate 6.6 mg/kg IM or SC, repeat after 14 days if Babesia is suspected. For severe anemia, blood transfusions may be necessary. In immune-mediated cases, prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO. Broad-spectrum antibiotics for neutropenia. Supportive care with liver protectants, gastroprotectants, and strict tick control using isoxazolines. Monitor CBC and organ function weekly.

Leishmaniasis Cutaneous form: ulcerative skin lesions, alopecia, scaling, and secondary infections. Visceral form: weight loss, lethargy, lymphadenopathy, ocular issues (uveitis), epistaxis (nose bleeding), and renal dysfunction (e.g., proteinuria, azotemia). Common in dogs with exposure to sandflies in endemic regions.
Treatment First-line therapy: Meglumine antimoniate (50 mg/kg/day IM for 28 days) or miltefosine (2–3 mg/kg PO SID for 4–6 weeks). Combination therapy with allopurinol (10 mg/kg PO BID) for relapse prevention. Lifelong treatment may be required for visceral leishmaniasis, with regular renal and hepatic monitoring. Vector control is critical; recommend insecticide-impregnated collars, repellents, and avoidance of peak sandfly activity.

Feline Hypothyroidism Usually an iatrogenic condition following treatment for hyperthyroidism. Congenital hypothyroidism is rare but may occur in kittens.
Symptoms:: Severe lethargy, constipation, inappetence, obesity, seborrhea sicca, stunted growth in kittens, cold intolerance, and poor coat quality.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Supportive care for constipation, dietary management for obesity, and skin treatment for seborrhea as needed.
Causative:: Levothyroxine (T4 tablet) 0.1 mg/cat PO SID; adjust dose based on serum T4 levels and clinical response.
Supportive:: Monitor total T4 every 2–4 weeks initially, then every 3–6 months. Assess improvement in energy level, GI function, weight, and coat condition.

Feline Hyperthyroidism A common endocrine disorder in older cats caused by excessive production of thyroid hormone, often due to functional thyroid adenomas.
Symptoms:: Weight loss despite increased appetite, hyperactivity, vomiting, diarrhea, increased vocalization, restlessness, and possible tachycardia or hypertension.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Manage gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g., antiemetics for vomiting, probiotics for diarrhea), control hypertension with amlodipine if needed.
Causative:: Methimazole 2.5–5 mg PO BID or transdermal application; radioactive iodine (I-131) is curative; surgical thyroidectomy for select cases. Iodine-restricted therapeutic diet (e.g., Hill’s y/d) as a non-invasive option.
Supportive:: Monitor serum T4 levels every 2–3 weeks initially, then every 3–6 months. Assess renal function concurrently, as kidney disease may be unmasked post-treatment.

Canine Hypothyroidism A common endocrine disorder in middle-aged to older large-breed dogs, often resulting from lymphocytic thyroiditis or idiopathic thyroid atrophy.
Symptoms:: Weight gain, ventral trunk alopecia, lethargy, decreased responsiveness, exercise intolerance, obesity, hypothermia, bradycardia, head tilt, ataxia, dysphagia, deafness, and infertility in females.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Supportive care for systemic effects such as hypothermia and bradycardia as needed.
Causative:: Levothyroxine (T4 tablet) at 0.02–0.08 mg/kg PO BID or thyroxine 0.2 mg/kg PO daily on an empty stomach. In cases unresponsive to T4, consider liothyronine sodium at 4–6 μg/kg PO q8h.
Supportive:: Monitor total T4 and clinical response every 4–6 weeks during dose adjustment, then periodically once stabilized.

Canine Hyperthyroidism A rare condition in dogs, often due to functional thyroid carcinoma causing excess thyroid hormone production.
Symptoms:: Weight loss despite increased appetite, hyperactivity, vomiting, tachycardia, polyuria, polydipsia, and poor coat quality.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Manage tachycardia and gastrointestinal signs with beta-blockers (e.g., propranolol 0.2–0.6 mg/kg PO TID) and antiemetics if needed.
Causative:: Methimazole 2.5 mg PO BID or transdermally, titrated based on serum T4 levels. Radioactive iodine-131 (I-131) is the preferred curative treatment. Surgical thyroidectomy may be considered in select stable cases.
Supportive:: Monitor total T4 and renal function every 2–4 weeks post-treatment, as glomerular filtration rate may decline with normalization of thyroid hormone levels.

Canine Osteoarthritis Joint stiffness, lameness, reluctance to exercise, and pain; degenerative joint disease common in aging dogs.
Treatment Weight management, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), joint supplements (e.g., glucosamine and chondroitin), physical therapy, and in severe cases, surgical intervention.

Feline Diabetes MellitusA chronic endocrine disorder caused by insulin deficiency or resistance, leading to impaired glucose metabolism.
Symptoms:: Increased thirst and urination, weight loss despite increased appetite, lethargy, and poor coat condition.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Twice-daily insulin injections (e.g., glargine 0.25–0.5 U/kg SC BID) to control hyperglycemia.
Causative:: Address underlying causes of insulin resistance (e.g., obesity, concurrent illness).
Supportive:: Implement dietary management with low-carbohydrate diets; perform regular blood glucose monitoring to adjust insulin dosing.

Canine EpilepsyA chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures, which may be generalized or focal; often idiopathic in young to middle-aged dogs.
Symptoms:: Recurrent seizure episodes of varying duration and severity, sometimes with pre-ictal behavioral changes and post-ictal disorientation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Long-term anticonvulsant therapy with phenobarbital (2–4 mg/kg PO BID) or potassium bromide to reduce seizure frequency.
Causative:: Identify and address any underlying causes (e.g., metabolic, infectious, structural brain disease) when present.
Supportive:: Regular monitoring of drug serum levels and liver function; maintain a seizure log for clinical assessment.

Canine PancreatitisAn inflammatory condition of the pancreas, often linked to high-fat diets or other triggering factors.
Symptoms:: Vomiting, abdominal pain, lethargy, anorexia, and possible dehydration.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics such as maropitant (1 mg/kg SC SID) to control nausea and vomiting.
Causative:: Address dietary triggers, particularly high-fat food intake.
Supportive:: Intravenous fluids for rehydration, analgesics for pain relief, and dietary fat restriction; hospitalization in severe cases.

Feline AsthmaA chronic inflammatory airway disease in cats, often triggered by allergens or environmental irritants.
Symptoms:: Coughing, wheezing, dyspnea, lethargy, and exercise intolerance.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Bronchodilators and corticosteroids administered via inhalers or orally to relieve airway constriction and inflammation.
Causative:: Identify and minimize exposure to triggering allergens or irritants.
Supportive:: Regular veterinary monitoring to adjust therapy and prevent exacerbations.

Tropical Canine Dermatitis (Allergic or Parasitic)A dermatological condition common in tropical climates, often caused by flea allergy dermatitis, atopy, or food hypersensitivity.
Symptoms:: Severe pruritus, erythema, alopecia, excoriations, lichenification, and secondary pyoderma.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Short-term anti-inflammatory therapy with prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID or antihistamines such as cetirizine 1 mg/kg PO SID.
Causative:: Administer isoxazoline-class ectoparasiticides (e.g., fluralaner or afoxolaner) for flea control; treat food allergies or atopy as indicated.
Supportive:: Chlorhexidine-based or antiseborrheic shampoos twice weekly; consider allergen-specific immunotherapy for recurrent atopy; implement strict environmental flea control.

Canine Myiasis (Fly Larvae Infestation)An infestation of skin wounds by fly larvae, typically occurring in warm climates or poor hygiene conditions.
Symptoms:: Painful, foul-smelling wounds with visible maggots, swelling, erythema, necrotic tissue, and possible systemic illness in severe infestations.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Thorough manual removal of larvae under sedation or anesthesia.
Causative:: Administer ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg SC or PO once (off-label use) to eliminate remaining larvae.
Supportive:: Lavage wounds with antiseptics (e.g., diluted povidone-iodine), apply topical antimicrobial ointment, and use systemic antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID) if infection is present; maintain wound hygiene and implement environmental fly control to prevent reinfestation.

Canine Gastrointestinal Parasitosis (Giardia, Coccidia)Parasitic infections of the gastrointestinal tract, commonly seen in puppies or immunocompromised dogs exposed to contaminated water or environments.
Symptoms:: Loose, malodorous or greasy diarrhea, flatulence, bloating, intermittent vomiting, weight loss, and poor growth.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Address dehydration and electrolyte imbalances as needed.
Causative:: For Giardia: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 5 days or metronidazole 25 mg/kg PO BID for 5–7 days. For Coccidia: Sulfadimethoxine 55 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days.
Supportive:: Strict hygiene, daily removal of feces, disinfection of living areas, and bathing to remove parasite cysts from fur to prevent reinfection.

Canine Tropical Pancytopenia SyndromeA multi-systemic vector-borne condition associated with coinfections from Ehrlichia, Babesia, or Anaplasma, resulting in severe blood cell depletion.
Symptoms:: Marked anemia (pale mucous membranes), leukopenia, thrombocytopenia with petechiae, fever, lethargy, anorexia, and high susceptibility to opportunistic infections.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care with IV fluids, blood transfusion if PCV <20%, gastroprotectants, and nutritional support.
Causative:: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID–BID for 21–28 days; imidocarb dipropionate 6.6 mg/kg IM or SC repeated after 14 days if Babesia is confirmed; corticosteroids (e.g., prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID) only in immune-mediated cytopenia; broad-spectrum antibiotics if neutropenia is present.
Supportive:: Weekly CBC monitoring and ongoing tick prevention with isoxazolines.

Feline Heartworm Disease Caused by Dirofilaria immitis, but unlike in dogs, cats usually have a low worm burden (often 1–3 worms). Pathology is primarily due to pulmonary arterial inflammation and immune-mediated lung injury, known as Heartworm-Associated Respiratory Disease (HARD). Sudden death may occur due to acute pulmonary embolism or severe anaphylactic reaction to dying worms.
Symptoms: Respiratory signs predominate — chronic coughing, intermittent dyspnea, sporadic vomiting (not meal-related), lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, and rarely hemoptysis. In some cats, the first sign may be sudden death. Auscultation may reveal harsh lung sounds or right-sided systolic murmur.
Treatment Symptomatic: Corticosteroids to reduce pulmonary inflammation — Prednisolone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 10 days, then taper to every other day dosing. Helps control clinical signs during acute respiratory episodes.
Causative: No safe adulticidal therapy for cats; melarsomine is contraindicated due to risk of fatal pulmonary thromboembolism. Preventive therapy with macrocyclic lactones is key — Ivermectin 24 µg/kg PO monthly or Milbemycin oxime 500 µg/kg PO monthly. These prevent larval development but do not kill adult worms.
Supportive: Bronchodilators (Theophylline 25 mg/kg PO BID) to relieve bronchospasm; leukotriene receptor antagonists (Montelukast sodium 5 mg PO SID) may reduce pulmonary inflammation; oxygen supplementation in acute respiratory crises. Strict rest during symptomatic periods.
Prognosis: Variable — some cats spontaneously clear infection; others suffer chronic respiratory disease or sudden death. Prevention is the mainstay of management.
Prevention: Year-round monthly prophylaxis with macrocyclic lactones in endemic areas is strongly recommended.

Canine Heartworm Disease (Dirofilaria immitis)A parasitic infection of the pulmonary arteries and heart caused by filarial worms transmitted by mosquitoes.
Symptoms:: Progressive cough, exercise intolerance, dyspnea, weight loss, ascites, signs of right-sided heart failure, and in severe cases, caval syndrome (sudden collapse, hemoglobinuria).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Exercise restriction to minimize thromboembolic risk; corticosteroids may be used to reduce pulmonary inflammation.
Causative:: Melarsomine dihydrochloride 2.5 mg/kg IM deep in epaxial muscles
2-dose protocol: day 0 and 30, or
3-dose protocol: day 0, 30, 31;
Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO BID for 4 weeks to target Wolbachia; initiate monthly macrocyclic lactones (e.g., ivermectin 6 mcg/kg PO) prior to adulticide.
Supportive:: Monitor for adverse reactions post-treatment and manage complications as needed.

Canine Mange (Sarcoptic & Demodectic)A parasitic skin disease caused by Sarcoptes scabiei (highly contagious) or Demodex spp. (opportunistic in young or immunocompromised dogs).
Symptoms:: Severe pruritus (especially with Sarcoptes), patchy alopecia, erythema, crusting, foul odor, and thickened skin.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Topical treatments such as lime sulfur dips or amitraz to soothe skin and kill mites.
Causative:: Isoxazoline-class drugs (e.g., fluralaner 25–50 mg/kg PO every 8–12 weeks, sarolaner 2–4 mg/kg PO monthly); ivermectin 0.3–0.6 mg/kg PO SID (avoid in MDR1-sensitive breeds).
Supportive:: Systemic antibiotics for secondary bacterial infections and anti-inflammatories for comfort.

Canine Ticks and Tick-borne FeverA vector-borne illness caused by pathogens such as Ehrlichia, Anaplasma, and Babesia, transmitted through tick bites.
Symptoms:: Fever, lethargy, anorexia, enlarged lymph nodes, pale mucous membranes, joint pain, and visible ticks; advanced cases may show pancytopenia, epistaxis, or neurologic signs.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care including fluid therapy, pain management, and blood transfusion if severe anemia.
Causative:: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO BID for 21–28 days; imidocarb dipropionate 6.6 mg/kg IM or SC every 14 days for suspected babesiosis; apply isoxazolines (e.g., fluralaner) for tick control; careful tick removal and environmental disinfection.
Supportive:: Corticosteroids if immune-mediated cytopenias are confirmed; monitor blood parameters during treatment.

Bladder Neoplasia Commonly transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder wall causing urinary dysfunction.
Symptoms: Anuria, oliguria, hematuria, dysuria.
Treatment Symptomatic: Urinary diversion procedures in palliative cases.
Causative: Surgical excision if resectable; chemotherapy (Mitoxantrone 5 mg/m² IV q3wk); NSAID therapy (Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID) for tumor control.
Supportive: Pain management, hydration, and monitoring. Levamisole is not used in urinary tumors.

Feline Dermatophytosis (Ringworm)A highly contagious and zoonotic fungal skin infection affecting , hair, and nails, often caused by Microsporum canis.
Symptoms: Circular areas of alopecia with scaling, crusting, follicular plugging, and variable pruritus; may fluoresce under Wood’s lamp in some cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Topical therapy with miconazole-chlorhexidine shampoo twice weekly or lime sulfur 2% dips every 5–7 days.
Causative: Systemic antifungals such as itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID for 21–28 days or terbinafine 30–40 mg/kg PO SID for 14–21 days.
Supportive: Treat all in-contact animals and perform weekly environmental decontamination using bleach (1:10 dilution).

Canine Dermatophytosis (Ringworm)A contagious Fungal Skin Infection, affecting hair, and nails with zoonotic risk, more common in young, stressed, or immunocompromised dogs in humid conditions.
Symptoms:: Circular alopecia, scaling, broken hairs, crusting, and mild to moderate pruritus; lesions typically on face, limbs, or tail.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Clip hair around lesions and clean with antifungal shampoos.
Causative:: Topical therapy with miconazole–chlorhexidine or enilconazole shampoos twice weekly; oral itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID or terbinafine 20–30 mg/kg SID for 4–6 weeks.
Supportive:: Environmental decontamination with bleach (1:10 dilution) and treatment of all in-contact animals during outbreaks.

Canine Tick ParalysisA potentially fatal neurotoxic condition caused by paralysis-inducing toxins from ticks such as Ixodes holocyclus and Dermacentor spp.
Symptoms: Rapidly progressive ascending flaccid paralysis starting in the hindlimbs, potentially advancing to respiratory failure; lethargy, incoordination, and voice changes may precede paralysis.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Provide oxygen therapy or mechanical ventilation if respiratory distress occurs; maintain IV fluids and thermal support.
Causative: Immediate, thorough tick removal; in endemic regions such as Australia, tick antiserum can be lifesaving.
Supportive: Minimize handling and stress during recovery to prevent exacerbation of symptoms.

Feline MelioidosisA severe, often systemic bacterial infection caused by Burkholderia pseudomallei, more common in tropical areas.
Symptoms: Fever, multiple abscesses affecting liver, lungs, spleen, or kidneys; hepatosplenomegaly; unilateral panophthalmitis.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Surgical drainage of large abscesses.
Causative: Intensive phase: Ceftazidime 40 mg/kg IV TID or imipenem 25 mg/kg IV BID for 10–14 days. Eradication phase: Trimethoprim–sulfonamide 15–30 mg/kg PO BID for 12–20 weeks.
Supportive: Alternatives for eradication include amoxicillin–clavulanate or doxycycline if TMP–SMX is not tolerated.

Canine MelioidosisA rare but serious bacterial disease in dogs caused by Burkholderia pseudomallei, endemic in tropical Asia and northern Australia, often during rainy seasons.
Symptoms: High, recurrent fever; deep abscesses in liver, spleen, or skin; chronic draining wounds; pneumonia; joint swelling; CNS signs including seizures and ataxia.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Surgical drainage of accessible abscesses; pain management.
Causative: Acute phase: Ceftazidime 40 mg/kg IV TID for 10–14 days. Eradication phase: Trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole 15–30 mg/kg PO BID for 3–6 months.
Supportive: Close monitoring due to guarded prognosis; ensure full treatment duration to reduce relapse risk.

Canine Rickettsiosis (Tropical Canine Spotted Fever)A tick-borne bacterial disease caused by Rickettsia rickettsii or related species, prevalent in tropical regions.
Symptoms: Acute high fever, petechiae or ecchymoses, joint swelling, vomiting, ataxia, seizures, and vasculitis.
TreatmentSymptomatic: NSAIDs for joint pain, IV fluids for dehydration.
Causative: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID for 14–21 days.
Supportive: Strict tick control using isoxazolines (e.g., fluralaner, sarolaner); monitor hydration, temperature, and neurologic status throughout recovery.

Canine Blastomycosis (Systemic Mycosis, Canine Fungal Pneumonia)A disseminated fungal disease caused by Blastomyces dermatitidis, thriving in moist, acidic soil near water sources.
Symptoms: Chronic cough, labored breathing, weight loss, fever, draining skin lesions, uveitis, retinal detachment, and bone pain or lameness.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Analgesics and anti-inflammatories for pain and fever.
Causative: Itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID for 60–90 days or until 30 days after clinical resolution; amphotericin B lipid complex 0.5–1 mg/kg IV EOD for disseminated cases (up to 16 doses) with renal function monitoring.
Supportive: Oxygen supplementation as needed; regular thoracic radiographs; liver enzyme monitoring throughout antifungal therapy.

Canine HepatozoonosisA protozoal infection caused by ingestion of infected ticks, especially Rhipicephalus sanguineus.
Symptoms: Recurring fever, severe muscle pain, hyperesthesia, gait abnormalities, mucopurulent ocular discharge, weight loss, and marked leukocytosis.
TreatmentSymptomatic: NSAIDs for muscle pain and inflammation.
Causative: Clindamycin 10–12 mg/kg PO BID, trimethoprim-sulfa 15 mg/kg PO BID, and pyrimethamine 0.25 mg/kg PO SID for 14 days.
Supportive: Decoquinate 10–20 mg/kg PO BID for long-term suppression (up to 2 years); nutritional support and hydration as needed.

Tropical Canine FilariasisA mosquito-borne parasitic infection caused by Brugia pahangi, Brugia malayi, or Acanthocheilonema reconditum.
Symptoms: Chronic dermatitis, pruritus, subcutaneous nodules, ocular abnormalities, and systemic malaise.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Antihistamines or corticosteroids for pruritus and inflammation; treat dermatitis as needed.
Causative: Ivermectin 0.2–0.4 mg/kg PO monthly; doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID for 4 weeks to eliminate Wolbachia endosymbionts.
Supportive: Monitor for anaphylactic reactions post-treatment; use mosquito repellents and environmental vector control.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)An immune-mediated disease affecting multiple organ systems in dogs and occasionally cats.
Symptoms: Intermittent fever, shifting leg lameness, glomerulonephritis with protein-losing nephropathy, facial ulcers, crusty nasal dermatitis, and hemolytic anemia.
TreatmentSymptomatic: NSAIDs for joint pain; topical therapy for dermal lesions.
Causative: Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO, tapered based on response; add azathioprine (Imuran) 2 mg/kg/day PO (dogs) or cyclosporine 5 mg/kg/day in refractory cases.
Supportive: Manage renal complications with renal diets and ACE inhibitors; perform regular CBC, urinalysis, and biochemistry monitoring.

Hyperlipidemia (Canine)A metabolic condition characterized by elevated circulating lipids, which can be primary or secondary to other diseases.
Symptoms: Uveitis, abdominal discomfort, seizures, vomiting, diarrhea, lethargy, anorexia, and visible lipemia in conjunctival vessels.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Implement a fat-restricted diet to reduce lipid levels and alleviate clinical signs.
Causative: Identify and manage any underlying disorder such as hypothyroidism, diabetes mellitus, or pancreatitis.
Supportive: Regular monitoring of fasting serum triglycerides; consider omega-3 fatty acids for anti-inflammatory effects and triglyceride reduction.

Hyperlipidemia (Especially in Miniature Schnauzers)A metabolic disorder that can be primary (breed-related, especially in Miniature Schnauzers) or secondary to endocrine diseases such as diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, or pancreatitis.
Symptoms: Postprandial vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, and in severe cases, seizures or lipid retinal deposits.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Strict low-fat prescription diet (≤10% fat on a dry matter basis) to reduce lipid levels.
Causative: Treat underlying diseases such as diabetes mellitus or hypothyroidism to address the primary cause.
Supportive: Omega-3 fatty acids (EPA/DHA) at 40 mg/kg/day PO to reduce triglycerides and inflammation; gemfibrozil 5–10 mg/kg PO q12h (200–600 mg/day in dogs over 10 kg; off-label use). Recheck fasting serum triglycerides after 4 weeks to monitor response.

Protein-Losing Nephropathy (PLN) A renal syndrome resulting from glomerular disease that leads to significant protein loss in the urine. Causes include immune complex glomerulonephritis, amyloidosis, and familial glomerulopathies, particularly in predisposed dog and cat breeds.
Symptoms:: Peripheral edema, ascites, weight loss despite normal appetite, systemic hypertension, hypoalbuminemia, and persistent proteinuria.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Manage edema and ascites with fluid restriction and diuretics if needed. Antihypertensive therapy is critical for long-term control.
Causative:: Treat underlying disease—use immunosuppressants (e.g., prednisolone or mycophenolate) for immune-mediated glomerulonephritis, or antimicrobials for infectious causes when identified. Genetic counseling may be needed for familial forms.
Supportive:: ACE inhibitors such as enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO once or twice daily or benazepril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO once or twice daily to reduce proteinuria and control blood pressure. Provide a restricted-protein, low-phosphorus diet. Supplement omega-3 fatty acids (EPA/DHA) at 80 mg/kg/day PO. Use antithrombotic agents like aspirin (0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID) or clopidogrel (1–2 mg/kg PO SID) to reduce thromboembolic risk. Monitor UPC, serum albumin, and blood pressure monthly.

Pyometra (Uterine Infection)A life-threatening bacterial infection of the uterus occurring in intact females, typically 1–8 weeks post-estrus due to hormonal changes and bacterial invasion (often Escherichia coli).
Symptoms: Purulent vulvar discharge, lethargy, vomiting, polyuria/polydipsia, abdominal distension, fever, and possible collapse.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Stabilize with IV fluids (lactated Ringer’s or 0.9% NaCl) and analgesia.
Causative: Emergency ovariohysterectomy is the treatment of choice; in breeding animals, prostaglandin F2α therapy may be considered with caution due to recurrence risk.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum IV antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin-sulbactam 22–30 mg/kg IV BID or enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IV SID), monitor hemodynamic status, and provide postoperative care.

LymphomaA common malignant neoplasia affecting dogs and cats, involving lymphoid tissues and sometimes internal organs.
Symptoms: Enlarged peripheral lymph nodes, weight loss, lethargy, decreased appetite, vomiting or diarrhea (GI form), and respiratory distress if mediastinal masses are present (cats).
TreatmentSymptomatic: Anti-nausea medication and nutritional support.
Causative: CHOP-based chemotherapy protocol (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisolone). Example dosing: vincristine 0.5–0.75 mg/m² IV, doxorubicin 30 mg/m² IV, prednisolone 2 mg/kg/day PO tapered.
Supportive: Prednisolone alone as palliative therapy (life extension ~1–3 months), monitor CBC, and manage chemotherapy side effects.

Panosteitis (Growing Pains)A self-limiting orthopedic condition affecting rapidly growing large-breed dogs aged 5–18 months, involving inflammation of the medullary cavity of long bones.
Symptoms: Sudden onset of shifting leg lameness, pain on deep palpation of long bones (especially the humerus), and intermittent clinical signs.
TreatmentSymptomatic: NSAIDs (e.g., carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID) and short periods of rest.
Causative: No specific causative therapy required as the disease resolves spontaneously.
Supportive: Balanced, age-appropriate nutrition, avoid calcium supplementation, and monitor until recovery (usually within months).

Feline ToxoplasmosisA protozoal infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii, capable of affecting multiple organ systems and posing zoonotic risks, especially for immunocompromised individuals.
Symptoms: Fever, lethargy, anorexia, dyspnea, neurologic signs (ataxia, tremors), ocular inflammation, and possible hepatic or gastrointestinal signs.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Fluids for dehydration, nutritional support, and oxygen supplementation for respiratory distress.
Causative: Clindamycin hydrochloride 10–12 mg/kg PO BID for 2–4 weeks, with monitoring for improvement within 3–5 days.
Supportive: Screen high-risk cats; avoid feeding raw meat; provide ongoing supportive care during recovery.

ToxoplasmosisA zoonotic protozoal disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, more common and severe in kittens and immunosuppressed cats.
Symptoms: Lethargy, fever, anorexia, dyspnea, ocular inflammation (uveitis, chorioretinitis), and neurologic signs (ataxia, seizures).
TreatmentSymptomatic: Topical anti-inflammatories (e.g., prednisolone acetate for uveitis) and systemic corticosteroids only if ocular or neurologic inflammation is severe and concurrent antibiotics are given.
Causative: Clindamycin 10–12 mg/kg PO BID for 2–4 weeks; in severe cases, up to 6 weeks.
Supportive: Ensure patient is FIV/FeLV negative, educate owners on zoonotic risk (especially immunocompromised individuals and pregnant women), and monitor clinical response.

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (Canine)A tick-borne bacterial disease caused by Rickettsia rickettsii, transmitted by species such as Dermacentor variabilis.
Symptoms: High fever, petechial or ecchymotic hemorrhages, joint pain, neurologic abnormalities (seizures, ataxia), and thrombocytopenia.
TreatmentSymptomatic: IV fluids, analgesia, anti-inflammatories, and anticonvulsants (e.g., levetiracetam) if neurologic signs are present.
Causative: Doxycycline 5–10 mg/kg PO or IV BID for 10–21 days, started as soon as the disease is suspected.
Supportive: Strict tick prevention with isoxazoline-class products for long-term control, and monitor hematologic parameters.

Zoonotic Hookworm Infection (Ancylostomiasis)A parasitic intestinal infection with zoonotic potential, caused by species such as Ancylostoma, posing risk of cutaneous larva migrans in humans.
Symptoms: Pale mucous membranes, iron-deficiency anemia, dark tarry stools (melena), diarrhea, poor growth, rough coat, hypoproteinemia, and peripheral edema in severe cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Iron supplementation and high-protein nutrition for anemic or debilitated animals.
Causative: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 3 days or pyrantel pamoate 5–10 mg/kg PO once, repeated in 2–3 weeks.
Supportive: Deworm all in-contact animals, emphasize hygiene and regular fecal exams, and provide public education to reduce environmental contamination and zoonotic exposure.

Feline EhrlichiosisA tick-borne infectious disease caused by intracellular rickettsial organisms such as Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Neorickettsia risticii. Less common in cats than in dogs, but can present with acute or chronic systemic illness due to immune-mediated and inflammatory responses. Transmitted primarily by tick vectors such as Rhipicephalus sanguineus.
Symptoms: Fever, weight loss, hyperesthesia, joint pain, pale mucous membranes, dyspnea, ocular discharge, anorexia, and diarrhea.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Supportive care including fluid therapy, nutritional support, and cautious use of antipyretics such as meloxicam (0.05 mg/kg PO SID).
Causative: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID for 28 days; if not tolerated, tetracycline 22 mg/kg PO TID for 21 days.
Supportive: Serial CBC and platelet monitoring to assess resolution of anemia and thrombocytopenia; evaluate for co-infections such as hemoplasmas, FeLV, or FIV in non-responsive cases.

Canine EhrlichiosisA tick-borne rickettsial disease primarily caused by Ehrlichia canis, with possible involvement of Anaplasma and Neorickettsia species. Progresses through acute, subclinical, and chronic phases, with multisystemic signs involving hematologic, neurologic, and ocular systems.
Symptoms: Epistaxis, fever, lethargy, weight loss, pale mucous membranes, anterior uveitis, retinal hemorrhages, acute blindness, seizures, ataxia, intention tremors, hyperesthesia, lameness, joint swelling, and audible heart sounds.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Supportive care with IV fluids, blood transfusions for anemia or thrombocytopenia, and anticonvulsants for seizures or neurologic signs.
Causative: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO or IV SID for 28–42 days; alternatives include minocycline 10 mg/kg PO BID for 28 days or tetracycline 22 mg/kg PO TID for 28 days. In co-infections or resistant strains, imidocarb dipropionate 5 mg/kg IM or SC (repeat in 14 days) with pre-treatment using atropine 0.02–0.04 mg/kg SC if cholinergic signs occur.
Supportive: Strict tick control, regular monitoring via platelet counts and PCR, and long-term follow-up to detect relapses.

Hyperparathyroidism in Cats A disorder marked by excessive parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion, leading to persistent hypercalcemia. It may be primary (commonly due to parathyroid adenomas) or secondary to chronic kidney disease or dietary imbalances.
Symptoms:: Polyuria, polydipsia, muscle weakness, decreased appetite, lethargy, vomiting, and calcium oxalate urolithiasis.
Treatment Symptomatic:: IV fluids (0.9% NaCl) to enhance calciuresis, furosemide to reduce calcium levels, antiemetics for vomiting, and analgesics for urolithiasis.
Causative:: Primary: Parathyroidectomy (surgical removal of the tumor).
Secondary: Dietary phosphorus restriction, phosphate binders (e.g., aluminum hydroxide 30–100 mg/kg/day PO), and calcitriol (0.01–0.03 µg/kg/day PO) to suppress PTH.
Supportive:: Monitor serum calcium and phosphorus closely post-op to manage hypocalcemia. Maintain long-term dietary control and schedule regular follow-ups.

Feline PanleukopeniaAn extremely contagious viral disease among unvaccinated cats, causing severe systemic illness and high mortality in kittens.
Symptoms: High fever, profuse vomiting, bloody diarrhea, dehydration, profound leukopenia, and sudden death in young kittens.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Aggressive supportive therapy including IV crystalloids for rehydration, antiemetics such as maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID, and broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin 22 mg/kg IV TID) to prevent secondary bacterial infections.
Causative: No direct antiviral therapy; prevention through vaccination with MLV vaccine starting at 6–8 weeks of age.
Supportive: Early enteral nutrition to improve recovery, strict isolation of infected cats, and rigorous hygiene measures.

Feline MycobacteriosisA chronic bacterial infection in cats caused by various Mycobacterium species, often associated with environmental exposure to soil, rodents, or infected wildlife in warm, humid climates.
Symptoms: Firm to ulcerated subcutaneous nodules, chronic draining wounds, regional lymphadenopathy, and respiratory signs in pulmonary forms.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Wound care and management of secondary infections.
Causative: Prolonged combination antimicrobial therapy — rifampin 10–15 mg/kg PO SID, clarithromycin 10–15 mg/kg PO BID, and enrofloxacin 5–10 mg/kg PO SID for 4–6+ months; surgical excision of accessible lesions recommended.
Supportive: Culture and sensitivity testing essential; strict hygiene and handling precautions due to zoonotic potential.

Feline Upper Respiratory Tract InfectionA common contagious condition in cats, often caused by feline herpesvirus-1 or feline calicivirus, and frequently seen in multi-cat households or shelters.
Symptoms: Sneezing, bilateral nasal and ocular discharge (serous to mucopurulent), conjunctivitis, fever, oral ulcers (especially with calicivirus), and decreased appetite.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Subcutaneous or IV fluids, assisted feeding with palatable diets, and regular cleaning of nasal/ocular discharges.
Causative: Famciclovir 40–90 mg/kg PO BID for Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 infections.
Supportive: Doxycycline 5–10 mg/kg PO SID–BID for 7–10 days for secondary bacterial infections; nebulization or steam therapy to improve airway clearance; strict isolation of affected cats.

Acute Feline Upper Respiratory Tract Disease A common multifactorial syndrome, especially in young kittens or crowded environments. Major pathogens include Feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1), Feline calicivirus (FCV), Chlamydophila felis, and Bordetella bronchiseptica.
Symptoms: Sneezing, serous to mucopurulent oculonasal discharge, conjunctivitis (often bilateral with C. felis), fever, lethargy, anorexia, dehydration, and lingual/oral ulcers (common with FCV).
Treatment Symptomatic: Hydration, nutritional support, nebulization, airway clearance, and ocular/nasal cleansing.
Causative: For bacterial involvement (esp. C. felis): doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID × 28 days (first-line). Alternatives: azithromycin 5–10 mg/kg PO SID × 5–10 days. For viral (FHV-1): famciclovir 40–90 mg/kg PO BID may help in severe or recurrent cases.
Supportive: Vitamin supplementation, appetite stimulants, minimizing stress, and vaccination to reduce disease severity and spread (not preventive of infection).

Feline ChlamydiosisAn infectious disease caused by Chlamydia felis, primarily affecting the eyes and occasionally the respiratory tract, often seen in cattery or multi-cat environments.
Symptoms: Conjunctivitis with serous to mucopurulent ocular discharge, blepharospasm, chemosis, and occasional sneezing.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Saline eye irrigation and warm compresses to reduce ocular irritation.
Causative: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID for 21–28 days or until 2 weeks after clinical resolution; treat all in-contact cats.
Supportive: Isolate infected cats to prevent spread; maintain hygiene in shared spaces.

MycoplasmosisA bacterial infection caused by various Mycoplasma species, primarily affecting the respiratory tract and joints, and occasionally other systems. It often co-occurs with other infections and may become chronic if untreated.
Symptoms:: Persistent sneezing, mucopurulent nasal discharge, fever, conjunctivitis, coughing, polyarthritis with shifting leg lameness, and abscessation with draining lesions. In cats, it can cause chronic respiratory and joint disease.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Maintain hydration, clean nasal/ocular discharges, provide NSAIDs (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID) for joint inflammation.
Causative:: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID with food for 2–4 weeks (first-line); Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO/SC/IV SID (avoid in growing animals due to cartilage effects); Azithromycin 7–10 mg/kg PO SID for 5–10 days (alternative for doxycycline-intolerant patients).
Supportive:: Tylosin 25 mg/kg PO BID (effective for resistant strains); Clarithromycin 7.5–15 mg/kg PO BID (used in refractory/systemic cases); prolonged therapy (over 4 weeks) may be needed in chronic or polyarthritic cases; rule out co-infections (FIV, FeLV in cats).

Feline MycoplasmosisA bacterial infection of red blood cells, most often caused by Mycoplasma haemofelis, transmitted via fleas or cat bites in outdoor cats.
Symptoms: Intermittent fever, lethargy, pale mucous membranes, icterus, and hemolytic anemia from immune-mediated erythrocyte destruction.
TreatmentSymptomatic: IV fluids and B-vitamin supplementation for anemia support.
Causative: Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID for 21–28 days; in severe hemolysis, add prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO to suppress immune-mediated destruction.
Supportive: Strict flea control to prevent recurrence and ongoing monitoring of hematocrit and clinical status.

Feline Chronic Kidney DiseaseA progressive, irreversible condition affecting renal function, common in older cats.
Symptoms: Weight loss, polyuria and polydipsia (PU/PD), vomiting, halitosis with uremic odor, oral ulcers, poor coat quality, and anemia.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Subcutaneous fluids (50–150 mL/day depending on hydration status) and supportive care for vomiting and anemia.
Causative: No cure—focus on slowing progression with renal therapeutic diets (low phosphorus, moderate protein) and phosphate binders such as aluminum hydroxide 30–100 mg/kg/day PO.
Supportive: Amlodipine 0.625–1.25 mg/cat PO SID for hypertension, erythropoiesis-stimulating agents for non-regenerative anemia, and regular monitoring of creatinine, phosphorus, and blood pressure.

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) A progressive loss of renal function in dogs and cats, leading to reduced filtration, toxin buildup, and systemic complications. Often recognized late in the disease course.
Symptoms: Polyuria/polydipsia, weight loss, lethargy, anorexia, vomiting, dehydration, oral ulcers, uremic breath. In cats, blindness secondary to hypertension is often the presenting sign.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Control nausea and vomiting with famotidine 0.5 mg/kg IV or PO q24h; appetite stimulation with mirtazapine 2 mg/cat PO q72h; manage hypertension to prevent ocular and renal damage.
- Causative: No definitive cure; goal is to slow progression of nephron loss with benazepril 0.3 mg/kg PO q12h (ACE inhibitor).
- Supportive: Fluid therapy to correct dehydration and maintain renal perfusion; protein-restricted renal diet; sodium bicarbonate 7 mg/kg q8–12h for acidosis; potassium citrate 25 mg/kg PO q24h for hypokalemia; vitamin D supplementation as indicated by labs. Regular monitoring of electrolytes, blood pressure, and renal parameters is essential.

Feline Hepatic LipidosisA severe liver condition often triggered by prolonged anorexia, particularly in overweight cats.
Symptoms: Anorexia for more than 3 days, jaundice, vomiting, lethargy, weight loss, and hepatomegaly.
TreatmentSymptomatic: IV fluids to correct dehydration and electrolytes, antiemetics such as maropitant 1 mg/kg/day SC or PO, and vitamin K1 if coagulopathy suspected.
Causative: Address underlying anorexia and reverse metabolic imbalances through aggressive nutritional support via esophagostomy or PEG tube, feeding 60–70 kcal/kg/day.
Supportive: Liver protectants such as SAMe 18–20 mg/kg/day and close monitoring of liver enzymes, bilirubin, and electrolytes throughout recovery.

Canine Hepatic Lipidosis A metabolic disorder resulting in excessive hepatic fat accumulation, leading to impaired liver function.
Symptoms: Hypoglycemia in neonates, lethargy, collapse, and diabetic ketoacidosis–like signs in adults.
Treatment Symptomatic: Dextrose 5% IV CRI for hypoglycemia, supportive IV fluids.
Causative: Manage underlying diabetes with regular insulin 0.25–0.5 U/kg IV q4–6h for ketoacidosis.
Supportive: Nutritional support via syringe or nasogastric feeding, ongoing monitoring of electrolytes and liver values, general supportive care as needed.

Pancreatic Neoplasms Neoplastic conditions affecting the pancreas with poor overall prognosis.
Symptoms: Weight loss, inappetence, sporadic vomiting, icterus, abdominal distension, and ascites.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain management with buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV/IM/SC q6–8h; antiemetic support with ondansetron 0.5 mg/kg PO BID.
Causative: Surgical resection if localized and operable.
Supportive: Prednisolone 1 mg/kg PO SID for inflammation and appetite stimulation; palliative care to maintain quality of life.

Pituitary Tumors Endocrine and neurological disorder caused by pituitary neoplasia, commonly resulting in hormone dysregulation.
Symptoms: Polyuria, polydipsia, lethargy, obesity, neurologic signs (head tilt, ataxia, circling, blindness, seizures), and features of secondary hypothyroidism.
Treatment Symptomatic: Management of polyuria/polydipsia and neurologic deficits with supportive care.
Causative: Trilostane 2–10 mg/kg PO SID for pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism; radiation therapy (multiple sessions) for tumors exerting mass effect.
Supportive: Levothyroxine 20 μg/kg PO BID for secondary hypothyroidism; monitor ACTH stimulation tests and serum cortisol for dose adjustment.

Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease (FLUTD)A collective term for disorders affecting the bladder and urethra in cats, potentially life-threatening in males due to urethral obstruction.
Symptoms: Dysuria (straining), pollakiuria (frequent small urinations), hematuria (blood in urine), urinating outside the litter box, and vocalization from pain. In males, urethral obstruction is an emergency.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Analgesia with buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg SC or transmucosally BID–TID.
Causative: Relieve obstruction via urinary catheterization under sedation or anesthesia; antibiotics only if UTI confirmed by culture.
Supportive: Prescription urinary diets (e.g., c/d Multicare), increased water intake (fountains, wet food), and environmental stress reduction via multimodal enrichment.

Lower Urinary Tract Disease (LUTD) A group of conditions affecting the urinary bladder and urethra, including bacterial infections, stones, and idiopathic cystitis. LUTD can be acute or chronic and requires thorough evaluation to identify the underlying cause.
Symptoms:: Polyuria, polydipsia, dysuria, hematuria, pollakiuria (frequent urination), occasional incontinence, abdominal discomfort, and vocalization during urination.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Pain relief with NSAIDs (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID, dogs only) if inflammation present; antispasmodics for urethral spasm (e.g., prazosin 0.25–0.5 mg/cat PO BID).
Causative::
- Bacterial infections: Antibiotics based on culture/sensitivity.
• Cefixime: 5 mg/kg PO SID × 7–14 days.
• Enrofloxacin: 5 mg/kg SC/IV/PO SID × 7–14 days (avoid in young/growing animals due to cartilage toxicity).
- Uroliths: Dissolution diets (for struvite) or surgical removal (for calcium oxalate or non-dissolvable stones).
Supportive:: Encourage increased water intake (wet food, fountains), prescription urinary diets (e.g., Hill’s c/d, Royal Canin Urinary SO), stress reduction for idiopathic cystitis, and regular monitoring with urinalysis.
Follow-up urinalysis and imaging are essential to evaluate response, prevent recurrence, and detect complications such as obstruction or chronic cystitis.

Feline Dental DiseaseA common oral health issue ranging from gingivitis to advanced periodontal disease, with systemic health implications.
Symptoms: Halitosis, drooling, difficulty chewing, red or bleeding gums, and tooth loss. May progress to stomatitis or affect kidneys and heart.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Analgesics such as meloxicam 0.05 mg/kg PO SID; antibiotics if secondary infection present.
Causative: Full-mouth dental exam under anesthesia, ultrasonic scaling, polishing, and extraction of diseased teeth (periodontal pockets over 5 mm or resorptive lesions).
Supportive: Home oral care with chlorhexidine rinses and daily brushing.

Feline HypertensionPersistently elevated blood pressure, often secondary to chronic kidney disease or hyperthyroidism, causing severe ocular and neurologic complications.
Symptoms: Acute blindness from retinal detachment, dilated pupils, disorientation, seizures, and epistaxis.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Immediate control of blood pressure with amlodipine besylate 0.625–1.25 mg/cat PO SID.
Causative: Treat underlying conditions such as Chronic kidney disease (CKD), or hyperthyroidism.
Supportive: Monitor systolic BP every 1–2 weeks initially and adjust antihypertensive therapy based on response.

Feline Hyperesthesia SyndromeA rare neurological and behavioral disorder characterized by abnormal skin sensitivity and episodic hyperactive behavior.
Symptoms: Rippling or twitching skin along the back, sudden self-directed aggression or loud vocalization, excessive grooming (especially tail or flank), and frantic running episodes. Often stress-related or neurologically triggered.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Environmental stress reduction, structured daily routines, and mental enrichment.
Causative: Pharmacologic therapy with gabapentin 5–10 mg/kg PO BID, fluoxetine 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID, or amitriptyline 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID for severe cases.
Supportive: Monitor treatment response, adjust doses as needed, and consider behavioral consultation.

Feline Vestibular DiseaseA disorder of the vestibular system leading to loss of balance and abnormal eye movements. Can be idiopathic or secondary to other conditions.
Symptoms: Head tilt, ataxia, circling, nystagmus (rapid involuntary eye movements), nausea, vomiting, and loss of coordination.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Antiemetics such as maropitant 1 mg/kg PO or SC SID to reduce motion sickness, plus fluid therapy if dehydrated.
Causative: Treat underlying causes (e.g., otitis media/interna with amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID for 10–14 days).
Supportive: Most idiopathic cases resolve spontaneously within 7–10 days; supportive care aids recovery.

Feline AnemiaA condition characterized by reduced red blood cell count or hemoglobin concentration, leading to impaired oxygen transport.
Symptoms: Pale mucous membranes, lethargy, tachycardia, rapid breathing, weakness, and reduced appetite.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Blood transfusions in severe or life-threatening cases.
Causative: Treat underlying causes such as parasites, FeLV infection, or chronic disease.
Supportive: Iron supplementation (ferrous sulfate 10–20 mg/kg/day PO), B-complex vitamins, and erythropoietin therapy in non-regenerative anemia under veterinary supervision.

Feline EpilepsyA neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures without an identifiable secondary cause.
Symptoms: Recurrent seizures, sudden collapse, muscle twitching, drooling, and disorientation or lethargy post-seizure.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Maintain seizure diary and avoid known triggers.
Causative: Anticonvulsant therapy with phenobarbital (2–3 mg/kg PO q12h) or levetiracetam (20 mg/kg PO q8h).
Supportive: Regular monitoring of liver enzymes (especially with phenobarbital use) and strict adherence to dosing schedule; avoid abrupt withdrawal of medications.

Infectious Canine HepatitisA viral disease caused by canine adenovirus type-1, primarily affecting the liver and other organs.
Symptoms: High fever, abdominal pain, vomiting, jaundice, corneal edema ("blue eye"), and spontaneous bleeding such as petechiae or epistaxis.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Aggressive IV fluid therapy, antiemetics, and nutritional support.
Causative: No specific antiviral available; broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin 22 mg/kg IV q8h) used to prevent secondary bacterial infections.
Supportive: Hepatoprotective agents such as SAMe or silymarin, corticosteroids (e.g., dexamethasone 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV) for ocular inflammation, and strict isolation of affected dogs. Vaccination of in-contact animals is essential.

Canine PyometraA severe and potentially life-threatening uterine infection occurring in intact bitches, often after estrus.
Symptoms: Purulent vaginal discharge (in open pyometra), lethargy, vomiting, fever, polydipsia, and abdominal distension.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Stabilization with IV fluids (e.g., lactated Ringer’s solution 10–20 mL/kg/hr), correction of dehydration and electrolyte imbalances.
Causative: Emergency ovariohysterectomy is the treatment of choice; prostaglandin therapy (e.g., PGF2α) may be considered in select breeding cases.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as ampicillin-sulbactam (22 mg/kg IV q8h), analgesics, and postoperative monitoring.

Canine Kennel Cough (Infectious Tracheobronchitis)A highly contagious upper respiratory disease caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica and other pathogens.
Symptoms: Loud, dry, honking cough, nasal discharge, gagging or retching, and mild fever in some dogs.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Rest in a low-stress environment and ensure good hydration.
Causative: Doxycycline (5–10 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days) for bacterial involvement.
Supportive: Antitussives such as hydrocodone (0.25 mg/kg PO q6–12h) if no pneumonia is present. Vaccination against Bordetella, parainfluenza, and canine adenovirus-2 provides prevention.

Canine Gastric Dilatation-Volvulus (GDV)Life-threatening syndrome in large to giant breed dogs characterized by stomach over-distension and rotation.
Symptoms: Sudden abdominal distension, non-productive retching, hypersalivation, restlessness, signs of shock (tachycardia, weak pulses, pale mucous membranes), abdominal pain, collapse, and potentially death without rapid intervention.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Aggressive IV fluid therapy (shock doses: 90 mL/kg crystalloids, titrated to effect) and oxygen supplementation.
Causative: Immediate gastric decompression (orogastric tube or trocarization). Rapid surgical correction with gastropexy to reposition and secure the stomach, preventing recurrence.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as ampicillin-sulbactam (22–30 mg/kg IV q8h), postoperative monitoring for arrhythmias, and treatment with lidocaine (50–75 µg/kg IV bolus followed by CRI 25–75 µg/kg/min) if ventricular arrhythmias develop. Intensive postoperative care is essential.

Canine CataplexyA neurological disorder marked by sudden loss of muscle tone during periods of excitement (e.g., play or food anticipation) while consciousness is maintained.
Symptoms: Sudden collapse or weakness during excitement, appearing similar to fainting but without loss of awareness.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Behavior modification to minimize overexcitement and maintain a calm, structured routine.
Causative: Pharmacologic therapy with clomipramine (1–3 mg/kg PO q12–24h) or imipramine (1–2 mg/kg PO BID).
Supportive: Close monitoring for adverse effects from tricyclic antidepressants and adjusting dose as needed.

NarcolepsyA neurological disorder characterized by sudden onset of sleep, often triggered by excitement or feeding, with rapid muscle relaxation and collapse.
Symptoms: Sudden sleep episodes, collapse during excitement, rapid muscle relaxation, but quick recovery without lasting effects.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Environmental management to minimize triggers such as excessive excitement or feeding stress.
Causative: Pharmacologic management with imipramine (1–2 mg/kg PO BID) or modafinil (3–5 mg/kg PO SID) to reduce frequency of episodes.
Supportive: Ensure a safe environment during episodes to prevent injury, and long-term monitoring to assess treatment efficacy.

Episodic Falling Syndrome (Cavalier King Charles Spaniels)A hereditary neuromuscular disorder characterized by exercise- or excitement-induced muscle stiffness and collapse without loss of consciousness.
Symptoms: Muscle rigidity, collapse during exercise or excitement, maintained awareness, breed-specific to CKCS.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Stress reduction, controlled exercise, and avoiding excitement triggers.
Causative: Pharmacologic therapy with clonazepam (0.5–1 mg/kg PO q8–12h) or acetazolamide (5–10 mg/kg PO q8h).
Supportive: Genetic counseling for breeding dogs to reduce transmission of the disorder and ongoing monitoring for treatment response.

Exercise-Induced Collapse (EIC)A hereditary neuromuscular condition seen primarily in young Labrador Retrievers, characterized by collapse during or after intense physical activity.
Symptoms: Hindlimb weakness, stumbling, loss of coordination, collapse after exertion, more common in warm weather.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Immediate rest and cooling when collapse occurs to allow recovery.
Causative: No curative therapy available; condition is linked to the DNM1 gene mutation.
Supportive: Strictly limit strenuous exercise, avoid overheating, and use genetic testing to guide responsible breeding decisions.

Paroxysmal DyskinesiaA movement disorder characterized by recurrent, sudden onset of involuntary movements without loss of consciousness.
Symptoms: Involuntary muscle contractions, tremors, dystonia, rigidity, or abnormal postures lasting from minutes to hours; animal remains alert.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Monitor triggers and maintain a diary of frequency and severity of episodes.
Causative: Medical management with phenobarbital (2–4 mg/kg PO BID) or clonazepam (0.5–1 mg/kg PO q8–12h). Dietary adjustments such as gluten-free or hypoallergenic diets may reduce episode frequency.
Supportive: Owner education, long-term monitoring, and minimizing stress or dietary triggers to improve quality of life.

Cervical Vertebral Instability (Wobbler Syndrome)A neurologic disorder affecting the cervical spine, most common in large breed dogs such as Dobermans and Great Danes.
Symptoms: Progressive limb weakness, ataxia, stumbling, wide-based uncoordinated gait, and neck pain in some cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Gabapentin for neuropathic pain, strict activity restriction, and physical therapy to support mobility.
Causative: Surgical decompression or vertebral stabilization to correct spinal cord compression and prevent progression.
Supportive: Prednisone (0.5–1 mg/kg PO daily) to reduce inflammation, physiotherapy to maintain strength, and long-term monitoring for recurrence.

Idiopathic Head TremorsA benign condition observed in certain breeds such as Bulldogs, Boxers, and Dobermans, involving involuntary head movements.
Symptoms: Repetitive horizontal ("no") or vertical ("yes") head bobbing episodes, usually when the dog is alert and at rest, without loss of consciousness.
TreatmentSymptomatic: No specific treatment is required as episodes are self-limiting.
Causative: No known underlying cause, but rule out seizures, metabolic, or toxic causes through neurologic evaluation.
Supportive: Distracting the dog with food, toys, or commands may stop an episode. Owner reassurance and monitoring frequency are recommended.

TetanusA life-threatening neuromuscular condition caused by the neurotoxin of Clostridium tetani affecting muscle tone and reflexes.
Symptoms: Progressive muscle stiffness, rigid limbs, risus sardonicus (facial grimace), erect ears, difficulty swallowing, and hypersensitivity to external stimuli.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Muscle relaxants such as diazepam (0.5–1 mg/kg IV PRN) to reduce spasms, and a quiet, low-stimulus environment for nursing care.
Causative: Tetanus antitoxin (1500–3000 IU IV or SC) to neutralize circulating toxin, and metronidazole (15 mg/kg PO or IV BID) to eliminate C. tetani infection.
Supportive: Aggressive supportive care including fluid therapy, nutritional support, and wound management to prevent further toxin production.

Peripheral NeuropathyA disorder of peripheral nerves causing weakness and sensory deficits, often linked to metabolic or toxic causes.
Symptoms: Symmetric limb weakness, decreased or absent reflexes, muscle atrophy, and sensory loss. Commonly associated with diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, or toxin exposure.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Physiotherapy, assisted mobility devices, and supportive care to maintain function.
Causative: Identify and treat underlying cause such as diabetes (with insulin therapy) or hypothyroidism (levothyroxine supplementation).
Supportive: B-complex vitamins (e.g., methylcobalamin 250 mcg PO BID) to support nerve regeneration and regular monitoring for progression.

BotulismA neuromuscular disorder caused by ingestion of Clostridium botulinum toxin, leading to progressive paralysis.
Symptoms: Acute flaccid paralysis starting in hind limbs, cranial nerve dysfunction (drooling, weak jaw tone, dysphagia), respiratory difficulty, and generalized weakness.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Provide nursing care including frequent repositioning, maintaining hydration, and preventing pressure sores.
Causative: Antitoxin use is rarely effective in small animals and usually not recommended.
Supportive: Mechanical ventilation in cases of respiratory paralysis, fluid therapy, and prolonged supportive care as recovery may take weeks.

ConjunctivitisInflammation of the conjunctiva commonly affecting cats and dogs, with infectious, allergic, or irritant causes.
Symptoms: Redness of conjunctiva, ocular discharge (serous, mucoid, or purulent), squinting, blinking, and ocular discomfort. In cats, often associated with Chlamydia felis or Feline Herpesvirus.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Maintain ocular hygiene, use lubricating eye drops, and relieve discomfort.
Causative: For bacterial cases, use topical antibiotics such as oxytetracycline-polymyxin B ointment (q8–12h) or tobramycin drops (1–2 drops OU q8h). For Chlamydia felis, systemic doxycycline (5–10 mg/kg PO q12–24h). For feline herpesvirus, topical antivirals such as cidofovir 1% (1 drop OU q12h).
Supportive: Monitor for recurrent or chronic cases, especially viral infections, and provide long-term ocular care as needed.

EuthanasiaA medically supervised procedure to humanely end the life of a suffering animal when quality of life is severely compromised.
Indications: Terminal illness, intractable pain, progressive neurological disease, rabies, or other conditions where humane euthanasia is the most compassionate option.
TreatmentStep 1 (Pre-Euthanasia Sedation): Dexmedetomidine (5–10 µg/kg IM), with or without butorphanol (0.2–0.4 mg/kg IM), to minimize stress and anxiety.
Step 2 (Euthanasia Agent): Administer intravenous pentobarbital sodium (100–150 mg/kg IV; e.g., Euthasol, Fatal-Plus) for rapid, painless euthanasia. For small or fractious animals, intraperitoneal administration is acceptable but slower.
Confirmation: Unconsciousness occurs within seconds, followed by respiratory and cardiac arrest. Confirm death via auscultation and absence of corneal reflex.
Supportive: Handle remains respectfully and discuss options with the owner beforehand to provide closure.

Euthanasia Alternative ProtocolAn alternative method when barbiturates are unavailable or restricted, ensuring humane death under anesthesia.
TreatmentStep 1 (Induction of Deep Anesthesia): Administer ketamine (10–15 mg/kg IM) combined with midazolam (0.2–0.5 mg/kg IM) or medetomidine (10–20 µg/kg IM). Allow 5–10 minutes for effect.
Step 2 (Verification): Confirm deep anesthesia (absence of corneal reflex, no response to toe pinch).
Step 3 (Euthanasia Agent): Inject potassium chloride (KCl) 1–2 mmol/kg IV slowly. This causes rapid cardiac arrest via hyperkalemia, but is only humane under complete anesthesia.
Note: Prepare potassium chloride as 1–2 mEq/mL diluted in sterile saline. Injection may cause gasping or twitching—owners should not be present unless prior sedation with barbiturates was given.
Restriction: Use this protocol only under strict veterinary supervision in situations where pentobarbital is not available.

Chiari-like Malformation (CM)A congenital malformation affecting the caudal skull and cervical spinal cord, most common in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels and toy breeds.
Symptoms: Severe neck and shoulder pain, phantom scratching (air scratching without contact), vocalization when touched, and progressive limb weakness.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Pain relief with Gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO every 8–12 hrs.
Causative: Reduce cerebrospinal fluid production with Omeprazole 0.7 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive: Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID for inflammation. Surgical foramen magnum decompression indicated in severe cases.

Degenerative MyelopathyA progressive neurodegenerative spinal cord disease primarily affecting German Shepherds and other large breeds.
Symptoms: Gradual hindlimb ataxia, proprioceptive deficits, knuckling, loss of coordination, and eventual paraplegia.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Physical therapy and hydrotherapy to maintain mobility.
Causative: No curative therapy available.
Supportive: Antioxidants (e.g., Vitamin E), aminocaproic acid 500–1000 mg PO BID in large dogs, and harness/cart support to prolong quality of life.

Polyradiculoneuritis (Coonhound Paralysis)An acute immune-mediated polyneuropathy often following raccoon exposure, though idiopathic forms also occur.
Symptoms: Acute ascending flaccid paralysis beginning in hindlimbs, progressing to all four limbs, with sensation and mentation preserved.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Frequent turning (every 4 hrs), bladder expression/catheterization, and assisted feeding.
Causative: No proven pharmacologic therapy.
Supportive: Intensive physiotherapy is essential. Recovery typically begins within 2–3 weeks and may take 8–12 weeks for full resolution.

Spinal Cord TraumaAn acute injury to the spinal cord resulting from trauma such as vehicular accidents, falls, or bite wounds.
Symptoms: Sudden paralysis or paresis (hindlimbs or all limbs depending on lesion site), absence of deep pain perception in severe cases, and urinary/fecal incontinence.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Strict cage rest for 4–6 weeks, bladder expression, and structured physiotherapy to prevent disuse atrophy.
Causative: Emergency surgical decompression or vertebral stabilization when indicated.
Supportive: Methylprednisolone sodium succinate 30 mg/kg IV bolus, then 15 mg/kg at 2 and 6 hrs, followed by 2.5 mg/kg q6h for 48 hrs (within first 8 hrs only).

Portosystemic Shunt (PSS)A congenital or acquired vascular anomaly causing blood to bypass hepatic metabolism, leading to systemic toxin accumulation.
Symptoms: Failure to thrive, hepatic encephalopathy (ataxia, circling, seizures), hypersalivation, and intermittent gastrointestinal signs in young animals.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Low-protein diet (Hill’s l/d or home-cooked hepatic diet) and lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO TID to reduce ammonia absorption.
Causative: Surgical attenuation of the shunt using an ameroid constrictor or ligation in congenital cases.
Supportive: Antibiotics such as metronidazole (10–15 mg/kg PO BID) or ampicillin, along with careful perioperative monitoring.

Congenital Portosystemic ShuntA congenital vascular anomaly where portal blood bypasses the liver, leading to toxin accumulation and hepatic encephalopathy.
Symptoms:: Seizures, disorientation, aggression, head pressing, blindness, ptyalism, urinary calculi; in cats, depression and anorexia are prominent.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Lactulose 0.5–2 mL/kg PO q8–12h to reduce ammonia absorption; anticonvulsants if seizures persist.
Causative:: Surgical attenuation with ameroid constrictor or cellophane banding (preferred definitive therapy).
Supportive:: Low-protein hepatic diet; Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID or Neomycin 22 mg/kg PO TID to control intestinal bacteria; long-term monitoring for recurrence or complications.

Megacolon (Chronic Colonic Dilatation) A chronic condition characterized by irreversible colonic distension and loss of muscular tone, often secondary to chronic obstruction or idiopathic dysfunction. Commonly seen in older cats.
Symptoms: Persistent constipation, tenesmus, abdominal distension, anorexia, lethargy, and markedly reduced or absent defecation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Low-residue/high-fiber diets and adequate hydration. Use enemas with caution.
Causative: Subtotal colectomy is the definitive treatment in severe or nonresponsive cases.
Supportive: Lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID–TID (osmotic laxative); Docusate sodium 50–100 mg PO BID or 10 mL of 5% solution mixed with 100 mL warm water per rectum; Cisapride 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO TID (prokinetic, especially effective in cats); Bisacodyl 0.12 mg/kg PO as needed (short-term use only). Loperamide is generally avoided due to risk of worsening motility issues.

Lymphangiectasia A chronic intestinal disorder involving dilation and dysfunction of intestinal lymphatic vessels, leading to protein-losing enteropathy.
Symptoms: Chronic small bowel diarrhea, ascites, peripheral edema, severe weight loss, and hypoproteinemia (notably hypoalbuminemia).
Treatment Symptomatic: Ultra-low-fat diet (≤10% fat DM basis, e.g., Royal Canin Gastrointestinal Low Fat or home-prepared low-fat diet).
Causative: Control of immune-mediated intestinal inflammation with corticosteroids or additional immunosuppressants.
Supportive: Prednisone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO initially (taper with response); Cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12) 250–500 µg SC weekly for 6 weeks if deficient; Azathioprine(Imuran tab:) 2 mg/kg PO EOD if unresponsive to steroids alone.

Taurine Deficiency Cardiomyopathy A dilated cardiomyopathy seen in cats (and rarely in dogs) associated with insufficient dietary taurine, leading to impaired myocardial function and heart failure.
Symptoms:: Lethargy, anorexia, dyspnea, coughing, exercise intolerance, ascites, pleural effusion, and signs of congestive heart failure. Sudden death may occur in advanced disease.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Diuretics (e.g., Furosemide 1–2 mg/kg IV/IM/PO q8–12h) for pulmonary edema or pleural effusion; Oxygen therapy for respiratory distress; Thoracocentesis or abdominocentesis for effusion relief.
Causative:: Taurine supplementation: 250 mg PO BID in cats (dose may be increased to 500 mg PO BID in severe cases). In dogs, 500–1000 mg PO BID depending on size.
Supportive:: ACE inhibitors (e.g., Enalapril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO BID) or Pimobendan 0.25–0.3 mg/kg PO BID for cardiac support. Nutritional correction with a balanced, taurine-supplemented diet. Long-term monitoring with echocardiography to assess myocardial recovery.
Prognosis is good in cats if taurine deficiency is corrected early, with many cases showing reversal of myocardial changes within months. Prognosis is more guarded in chronic or advanced cases with severe heart failure.

Canine Heart Disease (Dilated Cardiomyopathy)A myocardial disorder characterized by reduced contractility, ventricular dilation, and progression to congestive heart failure.
Symptoms: Exercise intolerance, coughing, dyspnea, abdominal swelling (ascites), and syncopal episodes.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Furosemide (2–4 mg/kg PO or IV as needed) for pulmonary edema and ascites control.
Causative: Pimobendan (0.25–0.3 mg/kg PO BID) to improve contractility; ACE inhibitors such as enalapril (0.5 mg/kg PO BID) to reduce afterload.
Supportive: Taurine supplementation in predisposed breeds, sodium-restricted diets, and regular monitoring with echocardiography.

GlomerulonephritisInflammatory damage to the glomeruli, often secondary to infectious, inflammatory, or neoplastic disease, leading to progressive renal dysfunction.
Symptoms: Persistent proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, weight loss, ascites, systemic hypertension, and possible azotemia.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Monitor UPC ratio, serum albumin, and blood pressure regularly.
Causative: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors such as enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO SID or benazepril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive: Renal therapeutic diet (low-protein, low-phosphorus), omega-3 fatty acids 40–70 mg/kg/day, antihypertensives if BP over 160 mmHg (e.g., amlodipine 0.625–1.25 mg/cat PO SID; dogs: 0.1–0.3 mg/kg PO SID).

AmyloidosisDeposition of amyloid protein in organs, impairing function; commonly affects kidneys in Shar-Peis and liver in Abyssinian cats.
Symptoms: Weight loss, lethargy, persistent proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, hepatomegaly, and signs of renal or hepatic failure depending on organ involvement.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Monitor blood pressure and renal parameters regularly.
Causative: Colchicine 0.03–0.05 mg/kg PO SID may slow amyloid deposition in familial Shar-Pei fever.
Supportive: Renal or hepatic therapeutic diet, ACE inhibitors (e.g., enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO SID) to manage proteinuria.

Hypoproteinemia Secondary to Protein-Losing Enteropathy (PLE)A condition marked by excessive protein loss through the gastrointestinal tract, often secondary to lymphangiectasia, IBD, or neoplasia.
Symptoms: Weight loss, chronic diarrhea, ascites, peripheral edema, poor coat condition, and in severe cases dyspnea due to pleural effusion. Bloodwork often shows hypoalbuminemia and hypoglobulinemia.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Monitor serum albumin, total protein, body weight, and clinical response; gradual tapering of immunosuppressants once remission is achieved.
Causative: Address underlying cause (e.g., lymphangiectasia, IBD, neoplasia).
Supportive: Highly digestible, low-fat, novel or hydrolyzed protein diet; prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO q12–24h for inflammatory cases; cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO q24h or chlorambucil 0.1–0.2 mg/kg PO q24–48h for refractory cases; cobalamin 250–1,000 µg SC weekly × 6 weeks then monthly; clopidogrel 1–2 mg/kg PO q24h to reduce thromboembolism risk.

CholangiohepatitisInflammatory liver disease involving bile ducts and hepatic parenchyma, common in cats.
Symptoms: Fever, icterus, vomiting, anorexia, weight loss, lethargy, and possible progression to hepatic encephalopathy.
TreatmentSymptomatic: IV fluids, antiemetics, and supportive care.
Causative: Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID, metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive: Ursodeoxycholic acid 10–15 mg/kg PO SID, SAMe 18–20 mg/kg PO SID; consider liver biopsy to guide therapy.

Kidney Failure (Uremia) A progressive loss of renal function leading to accumulation of metabolic waste products (uremic toxins). Can be acute or chronic in nature, with systemic effects on multiple organs.
Symptoms: Frequent urination, vomiting, brownish tongue discoloration, ascites, edema, gastrointestinal bleeding, lethargy, and signs of toxin buildup due to impaired renal filtration. May also present with hypertension and oral ulceration.
Treatment Symptomatic: Omeprazole 0.7 mg/kg PO BID to reduce gastric ulceration; anti-emetics if required; analgesia for oral or abdominal pain.
Causative: No definitive cure, but management aims to slow progression and address underlying factors (infection, obstruction, nephrotoxic insult).
Supportive: Low-sodium renal diet, constant access to fresh water, vitamin B complex supplementation, sodium bicarbonate for acidosis, fluid therapy for dehydration and toxin clearance, antihypertensives for blood pressure control, phosphate binders, and regular renal function monitoring.
Prognosis varies: acute kidney injury may be reversible if treated promptly, while chronic kidney disease is progressive and managed long-term with supportive therapy.

Severe Uremia An advanced stage of renal failure characterized by toxin accumulation in the bloodstream.
Symptoms: Seizures, neurologic signs, and altered mentation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Omeprazole 0.7 mg/kg PO BID to reduce gastric acid secretion.
Supportive: Gabapentin 30 mg/kg divided BID for seizure control and neuropathic pain; Clonazepam 0.5 mg/kg PO BID for seizure management.
Causative: Renal replacement therapy or aggressive supportive fluid therapy may be required for long-term stabilization.

Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) A severe, life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus caused by insulin deficiency and counter-regulatory hormone excess, resulting in hyperglycemia, ketonemia, metabolic acidosis, and dehydration.
Symptoms: Polyuria, polydipsia, vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, dehydration, acetone (fruity) odor to breath, tachypnea (Kussmaul breathing), weakness, depression, and possible collapse or coma.
Treatment Emergency stabilization: Aggressive IV fluid therapy (0.9% NaCl) to correct dehydration, hypovolemia, and electrolyte imbalances.
Insulin therapy: Regular insulin 0.1 U/kg IV bolus, followed by continuous rate infusion (CRI) or intermittent IM dosing until blood glucose stabilizes (monitor hourly).
Electrolyte correction: Potassium supplementation (0.5 mEq/kg/h IV) once urine production established; phosphorus supplementation if hypophosphatemia occurs.
Acidosis management: Correct with fluids and insulin; sodium bicarbonate (1–2 mEq/kg IV) only if severe acidosis (pH under 7.1).
Supportive care: Antiemetics, nutritional support, frequent monitoring of glucose, electrolytes, and acid–base status.
DKA requires intensive care; prognosis depends on rapid diagnosis and stabilization. Concurrent infections or pancreatitis may complicate recovery.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)A rare, progressive neurodegenerative disorder in cats and dogs resembling human ALS; often associated with degenerative motor neuron disease in canines.
Symptoms: Progressive muscle weakness, atrophy, generalized paresis, loss of motor function; cranial nerves typically spared.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Physical therapy, assisted mobility, nutritional support.
Causative: No definitive cure; Riluzole (off-label; 2–4 mg/kg PO BID) may slow progression experimentally but efficacy is uncertain.
Supportive: Close monitoring of quality of life; humane euthanasia may be necessary as condition advances.

Cerebral PalsyA non-progressive motor dysfunction present from birth or early development due to prenatal or perinatal brain injury or malformation.
Symptoms: Ataxia, hypertonia, poor coordination, tremors, abnormal posture; animals remain alert and aware but have impaired voluntary motor control.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Physical rehabilitation (balance and strength exercises), hydrotherapy, passive range-of-motion exercises.
Causative: No cure; focus on lifelong supportive care.
Supportive: Muscle relaxants such as baclofen 1–2 mg/kg PO BID or gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO BID–TID to reduce spasticity; provide soft bedding, assistive mobility aids, and monitor for pressure sores or orthopedic issues.

Autonomic NeuropathyA disorder of the autonomic nervous system that can occur secondary to diabetes mellitus, toxins, or idiopathic causes.
Symptoms: Urinary retention, fecal incontinence, dry mucous membranes, regurgitation from megaesophagus, bradycardia or tachycardia, abnormal pupil responses.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Bethanechol 1.25–7.5 mg PO BID for urinary retention; metoclopramide 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO TID or cisapride 0.1–0.5 mg/kg PO TID for gastrointestinal motility.
Causative: Treat underlying cause such as insulin therapy for diabetes mellitus.
Supportive: Maintain hydration; monitor for aspiration pneumonia in megaesophagus; provide long-term nursing care and environmental adjustments.

Diverticular DiseaseRare gastrointestinal disorder in dogs and cats involving colonic diverticula that may become inflamed or infected.
Symptoms: Intermittent tenesmus, soft or mucoid stools, abdominal discomfort, occasional rectal prolapse.
TreatmentSymptomatic: High-fiber diet (psyllium 1 tsp mixed with food BID); stool softeners such as lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID.
Causative: Broad-spectrum antibiotics for suspected diverticulitis (metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days).
Supportive: Surgical resection for chronic or complicated cases with persistent inflammation or obstruction.

Colorectal CancerMalignant neoplasia of the colon or rectum, most commonly adenocarcinoma in dogs (rare in cats).
Symptoms: Tenesmus, hematochezia, chronic constipation, ribbon-like stools, weight loss, palpable rectal mass.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Stool softeners, low-residue diet for palliative relief.
Causative: Surgical resection (marginal excision or full-thickness rectal pull-through) for localized tumors; NSAID therapy with piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID for COX-2 inhibition.
Supportive: Radiation or chemotherapy (carboplatin 200–250 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks) for non-resectable or metastatic cases; prognosis varies with tumor type, location, and completeness of excision.

Hirschsprung’s DiseaseCongenital absence of enteric ganglion cells, most commonly in the distal colon and rectum.
Symptoms: Chronic constipation, abdominal distension, failure to thrive, straining to defecate (tenesmus).
TreatmentSymptomatic: Stool softeners such as lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID–TID; enemas; dietary modification with low-residue or high-fiber diets depending on stool consistency.
Causative: Surgical resection of the aganglionic segment (sub-total colectomy) is definitive.
Supportive: Early surgical correction prevents megacolon and irreversible colon dilation; histopathology is essential for diagnosis and surgical planning.

Solitary Rectal Ulcer Syndrome (SRUS)A condition associated with excessive straining or rectal prolapse in dogs and cats.
Symptoms: Tenesmus, blood-streaked mucus in feces, intermittent constipation or diarrhea, discomfort during defecation.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Highly digestible, low-residue diet; stool softeners such as lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID–TID.
Causative: Anti-inflammatory therapy with sucralfate 0.5–1 g PO BID 30 min before meals to promote mucosal healing.
Supportive: Surgical resection of ulcerated area or colopexy for refractory or recurrent cases; treat underlying conditions such as rectal prolapse or megacolon.

Systemic SclerosisRare fibrosing disorder in dogs (extremely rare in cats) with progressive skin thickening, systemic organ involvement, and possible autoimmune features.
Symptoms: Skin stiffness, alopecia, decreased range of motion, dysphagia, muscle atrophy, organ fibrosis.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Physical therapy to maintain mobility.
Causative: Immunosuppressive therapy with prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO, sometimes combined with azathioprine (Imuran) 2 mg/kg PO SID in dogs.
Supportive: Pentoxifylline 15–25 mg/kg PO BID to aid microcirculation; regular monitoring for lung, kidney, and GI involvement. Prognosis is guarded to poor due to progressive fibrosis.

Neurogenic Bowel DysfunctionA bowel disorder associated with spinal cord injury, cauda equina syndrome, or degenerative neurological diseases.
Symptoms: Fecal incontinence or chronic constipation, straining, reduced perianal reflexes, difficulty posturing to defecate.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Stool softeners such as lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID; prokinetic agents like cisapride 0.1–0.5 mg/kg PO BID–TID (especially effective in cats).
Causative: Address underlying neurological cause when possible.
Supportive: Scheduled manual evacuation of the colon, dietary adjustments (high-fiber or low-residue depending on severity), consistent toileting routines, and physical therapy. Regular monitoring and medication adjustments are essential.

Cognitive ImpairmentCommon in senior cats and dogs, often due to Canine or Feline Cognitive Dysfunction.
Symptoms: Disorientation, altered interactions, changes in sleep-wake cycles, house soiling, reduced activity, anxiety.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Environmental enrichment and maintaining a consistent routine.
Causative: No cure; management includes nutritional support with antioxidant-rich diets (e.g., Hill’s® b/d or Purina® NeuroCare), selegiline 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID in dogs.
Supportive: SAMe 18–20 mg/kg PO SID, melatonin (dogs: 0.5–3 mg PO; cats: 1.5 mg PO at night) for sleep, stress minimization. Early intervention improves quality of life.

Lactose IntoleranceDigestive upset due to reduced lactase enzyme activity, more common in adult cats and dogs.
Symptoms: Diarrhea, flatulence, abdominal discomfort, bloating within hours of ingesting dairy products.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Oral or subcutaneous fluids (10–20 mL/kg) if dehydration occurs.
Causative: Eliminate all lactose-containing foods; provide lactose-free alternatives if needed.
Supportive: Educate owners that this is a dietary intolerance, not an allergy. Persistent signs despite dietary changes require further GI workup.

Ovarian Cysts A reproductive disorder in intact females characterized by fluid-filled cysts on the ovaries, which can affect fertility and hormone regulation.
Symptoms: Prolonged estrus, vulvar swelling, abnormal heat cycles, alopecia, and mammary gland enlargement. May cause infertility or behavioral changes.
Treatment Symptomatic: Provide analgesia (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO/SC SID for dogs; 0.05 mg/kg for cats) and stabilization prior to surgery.
Causative: Definitive treatment is ovariohysterectomy (spay).
Supportive: For breeding animals, ultrasound-guided aspiration or hormonal suppression (deslorelin implant 4.7 mg SC) may be attempted, but recurrence is common.

Gastritis (Dogs and Cats) An inflammatory condition of the stomach lining that may be acute or chronic, often caused by dietary indiscretion, infections, foreign bodies, medications, or systemic disease.
Symptoms: Acute vomiting, anorexia, abdominal discomfort, salivation, and dehydration; chronic cases may present with intermittent vomiting, weight loss, and lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Acute cases: NPO for 12–24 hours, followed by a bland diet (boiled chicken and rice) in small frequent meals. IV fluids if dehydration present.
Causative: Address underlying cause such as infection, foreign body, or dietary indiscretion.
Supportive: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC or PO SID for up to 5 days; omeprazole 0.7–1.0 mg/kg PO SID; sucralfate 0.5–1 g/cat or 0.5–1 g/10 kg dog PO BID–TID for mucosal protection. Investigate for Helicobacter spp. or food hypersensitivity in chronic cases.

Gastroenteritis (Dogs and Cats) An acute or chronic inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often linked to dietary indiscretion, infections, toxins, or secondary systemic illness.
Symptoms: Acute vomiting, diarrhea (sometimes bloody), abdominal discomfort, dehydration, anorexia, and lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Mild cases: Withhold food for 12–24 hours, then introduce bland diet (e.g., boiled chicken and rice) for 3–5 days.
Causative: Address infections with metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for suspected bacterial overgrowth or hemorrhagic gastroenteritis; treat gastric ulcers with omeprazole 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive: Moderate to severe cases: IV fluid therapy with Lactated Ringer’s or Normosol-R at 60–90 mL/kg/day; antiemetics such as maropitant 1 mg/kg SC or PO SID; probiotics and gastrointestinal diets to aid recovery. Monitor hydration, electrolytes, and clinical response.

Foreign Body Ingestion (Dogs and Cats) Ingestion of non-digestible objects that may cause gastrointestinal obstruction or perforation, especially hazardous when linear materials are involved in cats.
Symptoms: Vomiting, anorexia, abdominal pain (prayer posture), lethargy, drooling, persistent gagging or pawing at the mouth (in cats), dehydration, bloating, or shock in chronic cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilize with IV fluids and correct electrolyte imbalances.
Causative: Endoscopic retrieval for gastric objects without obstruction; surgical removal (enterotomy or gastrotomy) for obstructive, sharp, or linear foreign bodies.
Supportive: Postoperative care with IV fluids, opioid analgesia, and gradual reintroduction of a bland diet. Perioperative antibiotics such as cefazolin 22 mg/kg IV TID may be used. Prevent recurrence through owner education and safe environmental management.

Colitis (Dogs and Cats) Inflammation of the colon causing frequent small-volume diarrhea, straining, mucus and/or fresh blood in stool, urgency, flatulence, and abdominal discomfort. Often linked to dietary intolerance, stress, parasites, bacterial overgrowth, or inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).
Symptoms: Frequent small-volume diarrhea, tenesmus, mucus, fresh blood in stool, urgency, flatulence, and abdominal pain.
Treatment Symptomatic: Transition to a highly digestible or novel protein diet; fiber supplementation with psyllium 1 tsp/10 kg/day mixed with food.
Causative: Treat bacterial overgrowth with metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days or tylosin 20 mg/kg PO BID for chronic cases; deworm with fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 3–5 days; in IBD cases, prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO with gradual taper.
Supportive: Use probiotics and stress-reduction strategies. Monitor clinical response and adjust treatment to the underlying cause.

Canine Adenovirus Type 2 Infection A contagious viral respiratory infection in dogs, often part of the kennel cough complex.
Symptoms: Harsh, dry cough, retching, nasal discharge, fever, and lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Rest, hydration, and nutritional support; antitussives such as hydrocodone 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO q6–12h for persistent coughing.
Causative: Treat secondary bacterial infections with doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO q12h or amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO q12h as indicated.
Supportive: Vaccination is the most effective prevention strategy and should be part of routine canine immunization.

Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones) Formation of stones in the kidneys, which may impair renal function or cause obstruction.
Symptoms: Flank pain, hematuria, lethargy, decreased appetite, and signs of renal dysfunction or obstruction in severe cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain management and monitoring with serial imaging if non-obstructive. Monitor asymptomatic, non-obstructive stones with serial imaging.
Causative: For calcium oxalate nephroliths—no dissolution available; surgical or percutaneous nephrolithotomy may be required. For struvite nephroliths—urinary acidifying diets (e.g., Hill’s s/d) and antimicrobials such as amoxicillin 11–15 mg/kg PO q12h if infection present. For urate stones—allopurinol 5–15 mg/kg PO q24h with a low-purine diet.
Supportive: Monitor renal parameters and stone progression closely during therapy; adjust treatment to stone type and patient stability.

Testicular Torsion Twisting of the spermatic cord leading to acute pain and compromised blood flow to the testis.
Symptoms: Acute scrotal swelling, severe pain, lethargy, anorexia, reluctance to move; in cryptorchid animals—abdominal pain and vomiting.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics such as meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO or SC SID and opioids like buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IM or IV q8–12h for pain control.
Causative: Immediate surgical intervention—orchiectomy is the treatment of choice; in cryptorchid cases, exploratory laparotomy to locate and remove the torsed testis.
Supportive: Prompt diagnosis and surgery are critical to prevent necrosis and systemic complications.

Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD) Degeneration or herniation of intervertebral discs leading to spinal cord compression.
Symptoms: Back pain, reluctance to move, hind limb weakness or paralysis, ataxia, and loss of bladder or bowel control in severe cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: For mild cases—strict cage rest for 4–6 weeks; NSAIDs such as carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO q12h or meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID; muscle relaxants like methocarbamol 20–30 mg/kg PO q8h.
Causative: Severe or non-ambulatory cases—advanced imaging followed by surgical decompression (hemilaminectomy or ventral slot).
Supportive: Postoperative analgesia with opioids such as fentanyl CRI 2–5 mcg/kg/hr IV, and physiotherapy to improve recovery. Early intervention improves prognosis.

Feline Herpesvirus Type-1 Infection A common viral infection in cats affecting the upper respiratory tract and eyes.
Symptoms: Sneezing, ocular and nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, keratitis, fever, inappetence; may cause corneal ulcers and chronic upper respiratory signs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Hydration, nutritional support, and steam therapy.
Causative: Antiviral therapy with famciclovir 40–90 mg/kg PO q8–12h; topical antivirals such as idoxuridine or cidofovir 1% ophthalmic drops (1 drop OU q12h).
Supportive: Broad-spectrum antibiotics like doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO q12h for secondary bacterial infections; stress reduction and vaccination to manage recurrence.

Chlamydia felis Infection A bacterial infection causing ocular and mild respiratory disease in cats.
Symptoms: Conjunctivitis with unilateral or bilateral ocular discharge, blepharospasm, chemosis, and occasional sneezing.
Treatment Symptomatic: Isolation of affected cats to prevent spread in multi-cat environments.
Causative: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO q24h for 3–4 weeks (continue for 2 weeks beyond resolution); alternatives include Azithromycin 5–10 mg/kg PO q24h in kittens or pregnant queens. Topical tetracycline ophthalmic ointment q8–12h may be used adjunctively.
Supportive: Vaccination to reduce risk of outbreaks.

Cryptococcosis in Cats A systemic fungal infection affecting the respiratory tract, CNS, eyes, and skin.
Symptoms: Chronic nasal discharge (often unilateral), sneezing, nasal swelling, lymphadenopathy, ocular lesions, skin nodules, and neurological signs if CNS is involved.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor hydration, nutrition, and manage concurrent infections.
Causative: Fluconazole 50–100 mg/cat PO q12–24h for nasal/CNS cases; Itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO q24h for non-CNS involvement; Amphotericin B 0.5–1 mg/kg IV q48–72h in severe/refractory cases, often with Flucytosine 50–100 mg/kg/day divided q6–12h PO.
Supportive: Continue therapy at least 2 months beyond clinical resolution and negative antigen titers.

Tooth Root Abscess A localized bacterial infection of the tooth root causing pain and facial swelling.
Symptoms: Facial swelling (often below the eye), pain on eating, halitosis, drooling, reluctance to chew, draining tracts, fever, and lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain control with NSAIDs (e.g., Meloxicam 0.05–0.1 mg/kg PO q24h) or opioids (e.g., Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg buccal or IM q8–12h).
Causative: Dental extraction of the affected tooth under anesthesia. Pre/post-op antibiotics: Clindamycin 5.5–11 mg/kg PO q12h or Amoxicillin-Clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO q12h.
Supportive: Prompt intervention to prevent systemic spread and recurrence.

Colitis (Dogs and Cats)Frequent small-volume diarrhea with straining, mucus and/or fresh blood in stool, urgency, flatulence, and abdominal discomfort. Often linked to dietary intolerance, stress, parasites, bacterial overgrowth, or inflammatory bowel disease.
Symptoms: Tenesmus, presence of mucus, small-volume frequent defecation, urgency, and occasional abdominal pain. May have associated flatulence or anorexia.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Fiber supplementation such as psyllium 1 tsp/10 kg/day mixed with food.
Causative: Identify and treat underlying cause — deworm with fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID x 3–5 days; transition to highly digestible or novel protein diet; manage stress.
Supportive: Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days; tylosin 20 mg/kg PO BID for chronic cases; prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO with taper in IBD; consider probiotics.

Canine Adenovirus Type 2 InfectionA viral respiratory disease in dogs causing tracheobronchitis and secondary bacterial infections.
Symptoms: Harsh dry cough, retching, nasal discharge, possible fever, and lethargy.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Rest, hydration, and nutritional support; antitussives like hydrocodone 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO q6–12h for persistent cough.
Causative: No direct antiviral therapy — vaccination is key for prevention.
Supportive: Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO q12h or amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO q12h if secondary bacterial infection suspected.

Glaucoma A condition of elevated intraocular pressure that can lead to optic nerve damage and vision loss.
Symptoms: Sudden onset of eye pain, redness, vision loss, dilated pupil, and a cloudy or bluish cornea. In chronic cases, globe enlargement (buphthalmos) and optic nerve damage occur.
Treatment Symptomatic: Mannitol 1–2 g/kg IV over 20–30 min for acute IOP spikes.
Causative: Topical dorzolamide 2% (1 drop OU q8–12h) and timolol 0.5% (1 drop OU q12h); systemic methazolamide 2–5 mg/kg PO q12h.
Supportive: Enucleation or laser cyclophotocoagulation in chronic or refractory cases; lifelong monitoring essential.

Uveitis Inflammation of the uveal tract that may result from trauma, infection, immune-mediated disease, or neoplasia.
Symptoms: Red, painful eye, photophobia, excessive tearing, miosis (constricted pupil), corneal edema, and aqueous flare.
Treatment Symptomatic: Atropine 1% (1 drop OU q12–24h) to prevent synechiae and reduce pain.
Causative: Treat the underlying cause if identified (e.g., Toxoplasma gondii, Feline Infectious Peritonitis).
Supportive: Topical prednisolone acetate 1% (1 drop OU q6–8h) or flurbiprofen 0.03% (1 drop OU q8–12h); systemic prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO q12–24h as needed. Frequent monitoring is critical to avoid complications.

Nasolacrimal Duct Obstruction A disorder of tear drainage leading to ocular irritation and secondary infections.
Symptoms: Chronic tearing (epiphora), tear staining beneath the eyes, conjunctivitis, and recurrent eye infections. May result from congenital malformation, inflammation, foreign bodies, or scarring.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical antibiotics such as tobramycin (1–2 drops OU q8h) if infection is suspected.
Causative: Flushing of the nasolacrimal duct under sedation or anesthesia using a lacrimal cannula.
Supportive: Topical dexamethasone 0.1% (1 drop OU q6–8h) to reduce swelling and improve drainage; dacryocystorhinostomy in chronic or refractory cases. Diagnosis is confirmed via fluorescein dye test and duct flushing.

Yersiniosis An enteric bacterial infection caused by Yersinia enterocolitica or Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, usually transmitted through contaminated food or water.
Symptoms: Fever, vomiting, diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal pain, and lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Fluid therapy to correct dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.
Causative: Antibiotic therapy in severe or systemic cases: doxycycline (5–10 mg/kg PO q12–24h) or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (15–30 mg/kg PO q12h).
Supportive: Amoxicillin-clavulanate (12.5–25 mg/kg PO q12h) for sepsis or persistent symptoms; culture and sensitivity testing should guide antibiotic choice. Proper hygiene and handling are essential due to zoonotic risk.

Feline Leishmaniasis A protozoal infection caused by Leishmania infantum, transmitted via sandfly bites; more common in endemic regions.
Symptoms: Chronic weight loss, non-healing skin ulcers, nodular dermatitis, lymphadenopathy, ocular lesions (e.g., uveitis), and lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Regular monitoring of kidney parameters and hematologic profile during therapy.
Causative: Allopurinol (10–20 mg/kg PO q12h) as first-line long-term management; Meglumine antimoniate (50 mg/kg SC q24h for 28 days) in severe cases, with caution due to nephrotoxicity.
Supportive: Combination therapy often required; prognosis depends on immune status and systemic involvement. Confirm diagnosis with cytology, serology, or PCR.

Alopecia A condition characterized by patchy or generalized hair loss, often without inflammation or pruritus. Common causes include endocrine disorders (e.g., hypothyroidism, Cushing’s disease), parasitic infestations (Demodex, fleas), fungal infections (Dermatophytes), allergies, and stress-related overgrooming, particularly in cats.
Symptoms: Visible hair loss, sometimes patchy or generalized, usually without skin inflammation or itching.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive skin care, environmental enrichment in stress-related alopecia.
Causative: Isoxazoline class drugs such as fluralaner (25–50 mg/kg PO every 12 weeks) for parasitic alopecia; itraconazole (5–10 mg/kg PO q24h) for 3–6 weeks in dermatophytosis; Levothyroxine sodium (T4 tablet, 0.02 mg/kg PO q12h) for hypothyroidism; trilostane (2–3 mg/kg PO q24h) for Cushing’s disease.
Supportive: In psychogenic alopecia, environmental enrichment plus anxiolytics such as fluoxetine (0.5–1 mg/kg PO q24h).
Diagnosis is based on skin scraping, fungal culture, endocrine testing, and biopsy if needed. Treating the primary disease is essential for fur regrowth.

Alopecia X (Black Skin Disease)A non-inflammatory, progressive alopecia condition characterized by symmetrical hair loss and skin darkening, often affecting Nordic breeds and other predisposed dogs.
Symptoms:: Alopecia, bilaterally symmetrical hair loss on flanks, neck, legs, and head; hyperpigmentation; retention of puppy-like coat; no systemic illness.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive skin care to prevent secondary infections.
Causative:: GH replacement therapy (dose per veterinary endocrinology protocol), MelatoninTrilostane 20–60 mg PO SID depending on body weight.
Supportive:: Balanced nutrition, omega-3/omega-6 fatty acid supplementation, and regular coat maintenance to improve skin health.

Alopecia Areata An autoimmune condition targeting hair follicles, resulting in localized hair loss. Rare in both dogs and cats.
Symptoms: Well-defined, non-inflammatory patches of hair loss primarily on the head, neck, and trunk. The skin appears normal without scaling or pruritus.
Treatment Symptomatic: Observation, as spontaneous regrowth may occur in some cases.
Causative: Immunomodulatory therapy such as cyclosporine (5 mg/kg PO q24h). Corticosteroids like prednisolone (1–2 mg/kg PO q24h, then taper) may be used cautiously to reduce autoimmune attack.
Supportive: Avoid long-term corticosteroid use due to side effects; monitor for progression.
Diagnosis is confirmed via skin biopsy and exclusion of dermatophytosis or demodicosis. Prognosis is generally good if systemic disease is absent.

Cyclical (Seasonal) Flank Alopecia Symptoms: Symmetric, non-pruritic alopecia over the thoracolumbar flanks with well-demarcated borders and hyperpigmented skin. Hair regrowth occurs spontaneously within 3–8 months. Thought to be related to seasonal photoperiod changes; commonly affects Boxers, Bulldogs, Schnauzers, and Airedales.
Treatment Symptomatic: Melatonin 3 mg PO SID–BID for dogs under 10 kg; 6 mg PO SID for dogs over 10 kg. Start before expected season.
Causative: None identified; presumed photoperiod-mediated.
Supportive: No treatment may be necessary. Cosmetic issue only. Monitor for recurrence annually.

Portal Hypertension A condition characterized by increased pressure in the portal venous system, often due to hepatic fibrosis, cirrhosis, or vascular anomalies such as portal vein hypoplasia.
Symptoms: Ascites, vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, lethargy, and signs of hepatic encephalopathy (e.g., disorientation, seizures).
Treatment Symptomatic: Low-sodium diets and diuretics such as spironolactone (2–4 mg/kg PO q12–24h) to manage ascites.
Causative: Address the underlying liver disease or vascular anomaly. In congenital portosystemic shunts, surgical attenuation (e.g., ameroid constrictor placement) may be necessary.
Supportive: Lactulose (0.5–2 mL/kg PO q8h) to reduce ammonia absorption in hepatic encephalopathy; beta-blockers such as propranolol (0.2–0.6 mg/kg PO q8–12h) may help reduce portal pressure in select cases.
Ultrasound, CT angiography, and liver biopsy aid in diagnosis and monitoring. Prognosis depends on the underlying cause and response to therapy.

Pseudomonas Infection An opportunistic bacterial infection commonly affecting ears, eyes, wounds, and the urinary tract.
Symptoms: Otitis externa/media with purulent discharge, pruritus, erythema, and head shaking; ulcerative keratitis with ocular pain; chronic non-healing wounds with necrotic or malodorous exudate; urinary tract infections.
Treatment Symptomatic: Ear flushing for otitis, wound debridement, and topical care for lesions.
Causative: Culture and sensitivity–guided antimicrobial therapy. Effective agents may include fluoroquinolones (enrofloxacin 5–10 mg/kg PO or IV q24h), aminoglycosides (gentamicin 6–10 mg/kg IV q24h), or polymyxin B/colistin (topical).
Supportive: Topical therapy: ciprofloxacin 0.3% or gentamicin 0.3% ear/eye drops; tobramycin 0.3% eye drops q4–6h for keratitis; serum eye drops for corneal healing. Long-term therapy is often required.
Monitoring for renal toxicity (with systemic aminoglycosides) and antimicrobial resistance is crucial during treatment.

Right-Side Heart Failure A condition where the right side of the heart cannot pump effectively, leading to systemic venous congestion.
Symptoms: Ascites, hepatomegaly, pleural effusion, peripheral edema, jugular vein distension, abdominal distension, respiratory distress (from effusion), lethargy, and exercise intolerance.
Treatment Symptomatic: Therapeutic thoracocentesis or abdominocentesis for severe effusions causing respiratory or abdominal distress.
Causative: Treatment of underlying conditions such as heartworm disease or tricuspid dysplasia.
Supportive: Furosemide (1–4 mg/kg PO or IV q8–12h) to reduce fluid overload; spironolactone (1–2 mg/kg PO q12–24h) as an aldosterone antagonist; ACE inhibitors (enalapril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO q12–24h) to reduce preload and afterload; pimobendan (0.1–0.3 mg/kg PO q12h) for myocardial support.
Close monitoring of electrolytes, renal function, and overall response to therapy is essential.

Left-Side Heart Failure A condition where the left heart fails to pump effectively, leading to pulmonary venous congestion and edema.
Symptoms: Dyspnea, tachypnea, pulmonary crackles, cough, orthopnea, exercise intolerance, and in severe cases, frothy nasal discharge and cyanosis due to pulmonary edema.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen supplementation for hypoxemia; thoracocentesis if pleural effusion is present.
Causative: Treatment of primary cardiac disease such as mitral valve disease or cardiomyopathy.
Supportive: Furosemide (2–4 mg/kg IV q6–8h or CRI for acute cases; 1–2 mg/kg PO q12h for chronic therapy); ACE inhibitors (enalapril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO q12–24h or benazepril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO q24h); pimobendan (0.1–0.3 mg/kg PO q12h) to enhance myocardial contractility (dogs; cautious use in cats).
Monitoring respiratory rate, renal function, and electrolytes is essential during ongoing management.

Acromegaly in Dogs An endocrine disorder caused by excessive growth hormone secretion, usually secondary to progesterone influence in intact older female dogs.
Symptoms: Prognathism, widened interdental spaces, thickened skin and soft tissues (head/neck), inspiratory stridor, lethargy, exercise intolerance, and insulin-resistant diabetes mellitus.
Treatment Symptomatic: High-dose insulin therapy for diabetes (NPH or glargine 1–2 U/kg SC q12h) with close monitoring and glucose curve adjustments.
Causative: Ovariohysterectomy in intact females to eliminate the progesterone source; cabergoline (0.1 mg/kg PO twice weekly) may help suppress growth hormone release in refractory cases.
Supportive: Monitoring insulin needs, blood glucose, and clinical signs; radiation therapy in rare cases if pituitary mass is confirmed.
Long-term management focuses on diabetic regulation and preventing complications.

Clostridium perfringens Type A Enterotoxicosis An acute or chronic gastrointestinal disorder associated with Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin, often linked to dietary change, stress, or concurrent GI disease.
Symptoms: Large bowel diarrhea (acute or chronic), hematochezia, increased fecal mucus, tenesmus, abdominal discomfort, and flatulence.
Treatment Symptomatic: Dietary management with an easily digestible or high-fiber diet; fluid therapy if dehydrated.
Causative: Antibiotics in moderate to severe cases: amoxicillin-clavulanate (12.5–25 mg/kg PO q12h), metronidazole (10–15 mg/kg PO q12h), or tylosin (20–40 mg/kg PO q12h). Diagnosis confirmed with fecal PCR for enterotoxin genes (cpe).
Supportive: Probiotics (e.g., Enterococcus faecium, Saccharomyces boulardii) to restore gut balance. Stress reduction and diet adjustments are critical in recurrent cases. Extended antimicrobial or probiotic courses with periodic fecal rechecks may be needed.
Monitoring of response and prevention of recurrence are essential.

Pyelonephritis A bacterial infection of the renal pelvis and parenchyma, often secondary to ascending urinary tract infections.
Symptoms: Fever, lethargy, vomiting, polyuria, polydipsia, flank pain, stranguria, hematuria, and in chronic cases, weight loss, poor appetite, and renal insufficiency.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids for hospitalized patients with dehydration; analgesics such as buprenorphine (0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV or transmucosally q8–12h) for pain control.
Causative: Empirical antibiotics, adjusted by urine culture and sensitivity: enrofloxacin (5–10 mg/kg PO q24h), amoxicillin-clavulanate (12.5–25 mg/kg PO q12h), or cefpodoxime (5–10 mg/kg PO q24h). Duration 4–6 weeks.
Supportive: Ensure adequate hydration, monitor renal function, and repeat urinalysis/culture at 7–10 days after initiation and again post-therapy to confirm resolution.
Long-term monitoring helps prevent recurrence and chronic renal damage.

Trichomoniasis A protozoal infection most commonly caused by Tritrichomonas foetus in cats, rarely in dogs.
Symptoms: In cats – chronic large bowel diarrhea, semi-formed to liquid feces with mucus or blood, frequent defecation, fecal incontinence, but cats usually remain bright and maintain weight. In dogs – rare; may cause genital infections or mild GI upset.
Treatment Symptomatic: Hydration support and gastrointestinal probiotics to improve stool quality.
Causative: Cats – ronidazole 30 mg/kg PO q24h for 14 days (use compounded formulations for accuracy). Monitor closely for neurotoxicity (ataxia, seizures) and discontinue if adverse effects appear.
Supportive: Repeat fecal PCR after treatment to confirm clearance. In dogs, treatment is seldom needed; if symptomatic, metronidazole (10–15 mg/kg PO q12h for 7 days) may be used.
Careful dosing and monitoring are essential to avoid adverse events in cats.

Feline Coronavirus (FCoV) Infection A viral infection ranging from mild, self-limiting diarrhea to the potentially fatal feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) when the virus mutates.
Symptoms: Most cats are asymptomatic or show mild diarrhea. FIP cases may present with persistent fever, weight loss, anorexia, abdominal distension with effusion, dyspnea, ocular changes, or neurologic signs depending on the effusive or non-effusive form.
Treatment Symptomatic: For mild enteric infections – fluid therapy and probiotics.
Causative: For FIP – antiviral GS-441524 (4–6 mg/kg PO or SC q24h for ≥84 days; up to 10 mg/kg in neurologic/ocular forms). Monitor CBC, biochemistry, and clinical signs regularly.
Supportive: Adjunctive therapy may include corticosteroids (prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO) and anti-inflammatories for symptom relief. Early detection and strict treatment adherence improve prognosis.
Close monitoring during therapy is vital for successful outcomes in FIP cases.

Rupture of Uterus A life-threatening reproductive emergency, usually occurring during dystocia, trauma, or pyometra.
Symptoms: Acute abdominal pain, sudden collapse, tachycardia, pale mucous membranes, fever, vomiting, abdominal distension, and signs of septic peritonitis. Foul-smelling vaginal discharge may be present in partial ruptures.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids for shock stabilization and analgesia (e.g., methadone 0.2–0.5 mg/kg IV q4–6h).
Causative: Emergency exploratory laparotomy with ovariohysterectomy (OHE) to remove the ruptured uterus; extensive abdominal lavage with warm sterile saline.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum IV antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin-sulbactam 30 mg/kg IV q8h or enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IV q24h + metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg IV q12h). Post-operative intensive care monitoring is critical.
Early surgical intervention dramatically improves prognosis.

Gastroduodenal Ulceration Erosive or perforating lesions of the stomach or duodenum, commonly linked to NSAIDs, corticosteroids, liver disease, or stress.
Symptoms: Vomiting (often hematemesis), melena (black, tarry stools), anorexia, abdominal pain, lethargy, weakness, and pale mucous membranes due to anemia. Severe cases may progress to peritonitis if perforation occurs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Proton pump inhibitors – omeprazole (0.7–1.0 mg/kg PO or IV q24h). H2 blockers – famotidine (0.5–1.0 mg/kg PO or IV q12h). Sucralfate (0.5–1 g PO q8h) to protect mucosa.
Causative: Discontinue offending agents (NSAIDs, steroids) immediately. Treat underlying hepatic, renal, or systemic disease contributing to ulceration.
Supportive: IV fluids, antiemetics if needed, blood transfusion if severe anemia, and urgent surgery (gastrotomy/duodenotomy + lavage) if perforation is suspected.
Frequent monitoring and re-evaluation are essential to ensure healing and prevent recurrence.

Intestinal Ischemia and InfarctionAn acute, life-threatening condition caused by compromised blood flow to the intestines, often due to volvulus, thromboembolism, or strangulating obstruction.
Symptoms:: Sudden onset of severe abdominal pain, vomiting (often bloody), diarrhea or melena, abdominal distension, hypovolemic shock (tachycardia, weak pulses, pale mucous membranes), and collapse.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Analgesia with fentanyl CRI (2–5 µg/kg/h IV); antiemetics such as maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID; aggressive IV fluid resuscitation with crystalloids (dogs: 60–90 mL/kg/hr; cats: 40–60 mL/kg/hr); colloids (hetastarch 10–20 mL/kg IV over 1–2 hrs) if hypoproteinemia is present.
Causative:: Exploratory laparotomy to resect necrotic bowel and relieve vascular obstruction; correction of volvulus or strangulating lesion; anticoagulant therapy with heparin (75–100 IU/kg SC q8h) postoperatively in thromboembolic cases.
Supportive:: Broad-spectrum antibiotics (cefotaxime 30–50 mg/kg IV q6–8h or ampicillin-sulbactam 22–30 mg/kg IV q8h); oxygen supplementation; nutritional support postoperatively; careful monitoring of electrolytes, acid–base status, and urine output.
Prognosis depends on the extent of intestinal involvement and rapidity of intervention. Early surgical management with intensive supportive care improves survival.

Intestinal Spasm(Sudden, involuntary contractions of intestinal smooth muscle that may cause transient abdominal pain).
Symptoms:: Intermittent abdominal pain, restlessness, vocalization, straining to defecate, flatulence, and sometimes diarrhea. Episodes may resolve spontaneously or recur periodically.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Antispasmodic agents such as Butylscopolamine 0.2–0.3 mg/kg IM or SC q8–12h to relieve acute spasms; bland diet during flare-ups.
Causative:: Address underlying triggers such as gastrointestinal irritation, parasitism, food intolerance, or inflammatory bowel disease once diagnosed.
Supportive:: Dietary management (highly digestible, low-residue diet), stress reduction, hydration support, and anti-inflammatory therapy if indicated. Monitor recurrence and adjust care accordingly.

Prostatitis Bacterial infection and inflammation of the prostate, often associated with intact males.
Symptoms: Abdominal pain, tenesmus, hematuria, fever, lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs such as Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID to reduce inflammation and discomfort.
Causative: Antibiotics: Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO SID or Trimethoprim-sulfa 15–30 mg/kg PO BID for 3–4 weeks; Castration is curative for chronic/recurrent cases.
Supportive: Fluid therapy, analgesia, and monitoring for systemic illness or abscess formation.

Acute Prostatitis Bacterial infection of the prostate, most common in intact male dogs.
Symptoms: Lethargy, fever, painful urination, tenesmus, hematuria, and caudal abdominal pain. In dogs, prostate is often enlarged and painful on rectal palpation. Cats (rarely affected) may show vague signs such as dysuria or abdominal discomfort.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids for systemic illness, analgesia (e.g., Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV or IM q6–8h), warm compresses to relieve local discomfort.
Causative: Empirical antibiotics while awaiting culture results. Fluoroquinolones (e.g., Enrofloxacin 5–10 mg/kg PO q24h) or Trimethoprim-sulfonamide (15–30 mg/kg PO q12h) due to good prostatic penetration. Adjust based on sensitivity results and continue for 3–6 weeks.
Supportive: Castration recommended after resolution to prevent recurrence. Monitor for abscess formation or septicemia, which may require surgical drainage or aggressive intervention.

Canine Epileptoid Cramping Syndrome A paroxysmal movement disorder in dogs, especially Border Terriers, characterized by episodic neuromuscular dysfunction without loss of consciousness.
Symptoms: Intermittent episodes of muscle pain, trembling, abdominal discomfort, limb stiffness, salivation, vocalization, staggering, and difficulty walking. Often triggered by excitement, stress, or dietary factors.
Treatment Symptomatic: Benzodiazepines such as diazepam 0.5–1 mg/kg IV during acute episodes; gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO q8–12h in resistant cases.
Causative: Dietary modification with a hypoallergenic or gluten-free diet to reduce frequency and severity of episodes.
Supportive: Owners should maintain an episode log, implement stress reduction, and perform dietary trials under veterinary guidance to identify triggers.

Histiocytic Ulcerative Colitis A chronic inflammatory bowel disease most often affecting young Boxers, but also reported in French Bulldogs and rarely cats.
Symptoms: Large bowel diarrhea, tenesmus, hematochezia, weight loss, anemia, and thickened ulcerated colonic mucosa on colonoscopy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive therapy with highly digestible or hypoallergenic diets to improve stool quality and reduce mucosal irritation.
Causative: Enrofloxacin 10–20 mg/kg PO q24h for 6–8 weeks to target invasive intracellular E. coli identified in colonic mucosa.
Supportive: In refractory cases, immunosuppressive therapy (e.g., prednisone 1–2 mg/kg PO q24h tapered over weeks) may be considered, though less effective without antimicrobials. Repeat colonoscopy and biopsy may be required to confirm mucosal healing.

Metritis A severe postpartum uterine infection occurring most often within the first week after whelping.
Symptoms: Foul-smelling, purulent vulvar discharge, fever, lethargy, anorexia, dehydration, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, neglect of offspring. Severe cases may progress to septicemia and shock.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluid therapy for stabilization, antipyretics, and supportive neonatal care.
Causative: Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as ampicillin-sulbactam (22–30 mg/kg IV q8h) or enrofloxacin (5–10 mg/kg IV/PO q24h). Oxytocin (0.2–0.5 IU/kg IM q4–6h for up to 3 doses) or prostaglandin F2α (0.1 mg/kg SC q12–24h) in early cases to promote uterine evacuation if no obstruction is present.
Supportive: If medical management fails or uterine integrity is compromised, ovariohysterectomy is recommended. Close maternal monitoring and neonatal support are critical to survival.

Uterine Torsion A rare but life-threatening reproductive emergency, usually unilateral, occurring in late gestation or during parturition.
Symptoms: Acute abdominal pain, anorexia, vomiting, lethargy, distended abdomen, pale mucous membranes, absence of fetal movement, dystocia, or fetal death.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilization with IV fluids, analgesia (e.g., methadone 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV q4–6h), and supportive care.
Causative: Immediate surgical intervention via laparotomy. Ovariohysterectomy is preferred, especially with uterine necrosis or fetal death. If viable fetuses are present, detorsion followed by cesarean section may be attempted, though recurrence risk is high.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as cefazolin (22 mg/kg IV q8h) or ampicillin-sulbactam (22–30 mg/kg IV q8h). Postoperative monitoring for sepsis, peritonitis, and hemorrhage is essential.

Septic Peritonitis A life-threatening condition caused by bacterial contamination of the peritoneal cavity, often secondary to gastrointestinal perforation, ruptured abscess, or trauma.
Symptoms: Severe abdominal pain, vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, fever or hypothermia, tachycardia, tachypnea, abdominal distension with fluid wave, pale mucous membranes, weak pulses, collapse, and multi-organ dysfunction in advanced cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Aggressive IV fluid resuscitation (shock doses: 90 mL/kg in dogs, 60 mL/kg in cats, titrated to response), oxygen therapy, and analgesia (e.g., fentanyl CRI 2–5 µg/kg/h).
Causative: Surgical exploration to identify and correct the source of contamination (e.g., GI perforation, ruptured abscess). Lavage with warm sterile saline and placement of abdominal drains or closed suction systems.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as ampicillin-sulbactam (22–30 mg/kg IV q8h) combined with enrofloxacin (5–10 mg/kg IV q24h). Postoperative nutritional support, intensive monitoring, and management of complications (e.g., sepsis, shock) are critical.

Nonseptic Peritonitis (e.g., Uroabdomen) Inflammation of the peritoneum due to non-infectious causes, commonly urine leakage following bladder rupture.
Symptoms: Acute abdominal pain, abdominal distension, signs of discomfort. Often associated with uroabdomen and azotemia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Crystalloid fluid resuscitation (Lactated Ringer’s 20 mL/kg IV bolus), analgesia with methadone (0.2 mg/kg IV QID).
Causative: Surgical repair of bladder rupture or correction of the underlying cause.
Supportive: Peritoneal lavage, antimicrobial prophylaxis with cefazolin (22 mg/kg IV TID), and monitoring of electrolytes and renal function.

Central Progressive Retinal Atrophy A hereditary degenerative disease of photoreceptors, most common in purebred dogs, leading to progressive vision loss.
Symptoms: Gradual blindness, night vision loss progressing to day vision impairment, absent menace response.
Treatment Symptomatic: No proven therapy to restore vision.
Causative: No curative treatment; progressive hereditary condition.
Supportive: Nutritional supplementation with antioxidants (e.g., lutein, vitamin E, omega-3 fatty acids) may help slow retinal degeneration. Environmental adaptation recommended for safety and quality of life.

Fluoroquinolone Toxicity in Cats An adverse drug reaction resulting in acute or progressive retinal degeneration, strongly associated with high doses of enrofloxacin.
Symptoms: Sudden or progressive blindness, dilated pupils, absent pupillary light reflexes, retinal atrophy on fundic exam.
Treatment Symptomatic: Immediate discontinuation of fluoroquinolone therapy.
Causative: No reversal possible; prevention by avoiding enrofloxacin doses >5 mg/kg in cats.
Supportive: Provide a safe and familiar environment; consider antioxidant supplementation for neuroprotection; long-term adaptation and owner guidance are essential.

Spermatocele A cystic dilation within the epididymal ducts containing non-viable spermatozoa. Usually benign and often incidental, but may affect fertility or cause local discomfort.
Symptoms: Typically asymptomatic, but can present as painless epididymal swelling, scrotal irritation, or discomfort. Large spermatoceles may cause local pressure effects or interfere with testicular function.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesia with NSAIDs (e.g., carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO q12h) or opioids (e.g., buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IM/IV q6–8h).
Causative: Definitive management by surgical excision or unilateral orchiectomy if the lesion is large, symptomatic, or compromises fertility.
Supportive: Histopathologic confirmation to rule out other scrotal masses. Routine castration may be considered in non-breeding animals.

Feline Allergic Bronchitis A chronic inflammatory respiratory disease in cats characterized by airway hyperreactivity and obstruction.
Symptoms: Dry, harsh, hacking cough; expiratory wheeze; respiratory distress; anorexia; acute bronchospasm; barrel chest from prolonged air trapping. Caused by bronchoconstriction, bronchial wall edema, and excessive mucus secretion.
Treatment Symptomatic: Bronchodilators such as albuterol (90 µg/inhalation via MDI q6-8h PRN) or terbutaline (0.625 mg/cat PO BID or 0.01 mg/kg SC/IM q8h) for acute relief.
Causative: Glucocorticoid therapy to control airway inflammation — acute use of dexamethasone sodium phosphate (2.0 mg/kg IV/IM); chronic management with prednisone (0.5–1.0 mg/kg PO BID, tapered) or inhaled fluticasone propionate (110–220 µg per actuation via spacer BID).
Supportive: Long-term allergen avoidance, cyproheptadine (2 mg/cat PO BID) or cyclosporine (5–10 mg/kg PO BID) in refractory cases, theophylline (20–28 mg/kg PO SID) or aminophylline (5–10 mg/kg IV q8-12h) for airway support. Regular re-evaluation and consistent medication adherence are essential.

Canine Rheumatoid Arthritis A chronic immune-mediated erosive polyarthritis leading to joint pain, swelling, and progressive dysfunction.
Symptoms: Shifting lameness, soft tissue swelling, joint effusion, painful and warm joints, regional lymphadenopathy. Chronic progression may result in deformity, instability, or loss of function.
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs such as meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg PO SID), carprofen (2.2 mg/kg PO q12h), etodolac (10–15 mg/kg PO q24h), or naproxen (2 mg/kg PO q48h; use cautiously due to GI risk). Analgesia with aspirin (10 mg/kg PO q12h) can also be used.
Causative: Immunosuppressive therapy with prednisolone (0.5–1 mg/kg PO q24h, tapered as response permits), penicillamine (10–15 mg/kg PO q12h), cyclophosphamide (1.5–2.5 mg/kg PO q24h), or azathioprine (1–2 mg/kg PO q24h).
Supportive: Physical therapy, strict weight management, and joint nutraceuticals (e.g., glucosamine, chondroitin, omega-3 fatty acids). Regular monitoring for drug adverse effects and disease progression is critical for long-term success.

Aspiration PneumoniaA respiratory condition often associated with vomiting, regurgitation, or food aspiration leading to airway contamination and infection.
Symptoms:: Acute onset of respiratory distress, tachypnea, cough, fever, lethargy, and abnormal lung sounds (crackles, wheezes). Chronic cases may show exercise intolerance and persistent coughing.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen supplementation (nasal cannula, mask, or oxygen cage); nebulization with sterile saline and coupage; bronchodilators such as aminophylline (dogs 5–7 mg/kg PO q8-12h; cats 4–6 mg/kg PO q12h), theophylline (dogs 10 mg/kg PO q12h; cats 5–6 mg/kg PO q12h), terbutaline (dogs 0.005–0.01 mg/kg SC q8-12h or 2.5–5 mg PO BID; cats 0.01 mg/kg SC or 0.625 mg PO BID), or albuterol (90 µg/actuation inhaled q6-8h PRN).
Causative:: Broad-spectrum antibiotics, e.g., ampicillin-sulbactam 22–30 mg/kg IV q8h, or enrofloxacin 5–10 mg/kg PO/IV q24h with clindamycin 10–15 mg/kg PO/IV q12h, pending culture results.
Supportive:: Evaluation of esophageal function and swallowing reflex in recurrent cases; feeding tubes or surgical correction (e.g., cricopharyngeal myotomy) if aspiration risk persists; intensive monitoring and fluid support.

Central Nervous System InflammationA neurologic condition in cats that may result from infectious (e.g., FIP, toxoplasmosis) or immune-mediated meningoencephalitis.
Symptoms:: Aggressive behavior, disorientation, altered mentation, ataxia, seizures, or hypersensitivity to touch.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Anticonvulsants such as gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO q8-12h or pregabalin 2–4 mg/kg PO q12h; lorazepam 0.02–0.05 mg/kg PO q12h or clonazepam 0.1–0.2 mg/kg PO q12h for aggression; clomipramine 0.5–1 mg/kg PO q24h for chronic behavioral modification.
Causative:: Immunosuppressive corticosteroids (prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO q12-24h or dexamethasone 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV/IM q24h); specific antimicrobials if infectious cause confirmed (e.g., toxoplasmosis).
Supportive:: Advanced diagnostics (neurologic exam, MRI/CT, CSF analysis); long-term monitoring for side effects; supportive nursing care and anxiety reduction strategies.

Canine Borreliosis (Lyme Disease)A tick-borne infectious disease caused by Borrelia burgdorferi, most common in retrievers and other predisposed breeds.
Symptoms:: Intermittent or shifting-leg lameness, fever, lethargy, anorexia, lymphadenopathy, polyarthritis with joint swelling, and in severe cases, protein-losing nephropathy (Lyme nephritis).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Analgesia with NSAIDs such as carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO q12h or meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO q24h with food.
Causative:: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO q24h (or divided q12h) for 28 days; alternatives include amoxicillin 20 mg/kg PO q8h or azithromycin 25 mg/kg PO q24h in intolerant dogs.
Supportive:: ACE inhibitors (e.g., enalapril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO q12–24h) and renal diet for Lyme nephritis; strict tick prevention with isoxazolines (afoxolaner, fluralaner); annual screening and prompt tick removal within 24–48h to reduce risk.

Overgrown NailsA common condition where nails grow excessively, leading to pain, lameness, and potential secondary complications.
Symptoms:: Lameness, altered gait, reluctance to exercise, nails catching on surfaces, broken or split claws, and in severe cases, nails curling into paw pads causing infection, bleeding, or abscesses.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Analgesia with NSAIDs such as carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO q12h to reduce pain and inflammation.
Causative:: Careful trimming using nail clippers or rotary tool; sedation (dexmedetomidine 5–10 µg/kg IM) if required; surgical removal under local anesthesia (lidocaine 2% or bupivacaine 0.25%) if embedded.
Supportive:: Systemic antibiotics (cephalexin 22–30 mg/kg PO q12h) if infection is present; regular trimming every 2–4 weeks; management of orthopedic/neurologic conditions reducing normal wear.

Ligament SprainsSoft tissue injury involving over-stretching or tearing of ligaments, often seen in active dogs.
Symptoms:: Lameness, localized swelling, joint instability, pain on palpation, reduced range of motion, and intermittent limping that worsens with activity. Common sites include stifle, carpus, and hock.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Cold compresses first 48h then warm compresses; NSAIDs (carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO q12h or meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO q24h) for pain and inflammation.
Causative:: Rest and restricted activity for 2–4 weeks; supportive bandaging or splints for stabilization; regenerative therapies (PRP, stem cell) in refractory cases.
Supportive:: Laser therapy, physiotherapy, gradual return to activity, and weight management to reduce recurrence.

Nail Bed InfectionsAn infection involving the nail bed, often bacterial or fungal in origin, leading to chronic discomfort and lameness.
Symptoms:: Redness, swelling, pain around nail bed, discharge or pus, limping, nail deformity/discoloration, and licking or chewing at the paw. Chronic cases may cause onychodystrophy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain control with NSAIDs (carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO q12h or meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO q24h).
Causative:: Empirical antibiotics (cephalexin 22–30 mg/kg PO q12h or clindamycin 5.5–11 mg/kg PO q12h); antifungal therapy with itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO q24h if fungal cause suspected; surgical nail removal for refractory cases.
Supportive:: Topical antiseptic soaks (chlorhexidine 0.05–0.1% or povidone-iodine dilution); paw hygiene; Elizabethan collar to prevent licking during recovery.

Legg-Calvé-Perthes DiseaseAvascular necrosis of the femoral head seen in immature small breed dogs, especially Miniature Poodles and Yorkshire Terriers, between 4–12 months of age.
Symptoms:: Progressive hindlimb lameness, pain on hip manipulation, muscle atrophy, and decreased range of motion.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: NSAIDs such as carprofen (2.2 mg/kg PO q12h) or meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg PO q24h) for pain and inflammation.
Causative:: Femoral head and neck excision arthroplasty (FHO) is the definitive treatment if conservative therapy fails.
Supportive:: Strict rest, post-op physiotherapy, controlled exercise, passive range-of-motion exercises, and swimming rehabilitation. Early diagnosis improves prognosis.

Feline YersiniosisA bacterial infection caused by Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, often occurring in cold and wet seasons.
Symptoms:: Abdominal discomfort, weight loss, dehydration, diarrhea, or asymptomatic carriage. May cause acute enteritis.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics such as maropitant (1 mg/kg SC or PO q24h) to reduce vomiting.
Causative:: Antibiotics: trimethoprim-sulfonamide (20 mg/kg PO or IV q24h), doxycycline (10 mg/kg PO q12h), or cefpodoxime (5–10 mg/kg PO q24h).
Supportive:: IV fluids, nutritional support, monitoring hydration. Confirm diagnosis by fecal culture or PCR; zoonotic precautions advised.

Lymphoma (Malignant Lymphoma or Lymphosarcoma)A common hematopoietic neoplasm in dogs and cats with variable presentations.
Symptoms:: PU/PD, vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, dyspnea, coughing, nasal discharge, edema, neurological deficits (ataxia, seizures, blindness), or ocular involvement (uveitis).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics (maropitant or ondansetron) and supportive care during chemotherapy.
Causative:: Chemotherapy protocols such as CHOP in dogs; doxorubicin, mitoxantrone, or radiation therapy depending on form in cats.
Supportive:: Prednisone (2 mg/kg PO daily tapered), nutritional support, monitoring for side effects. Prognosis depends on stage, immunophenotype, and response.

Canine Parvovirus (CPV-2b) InfectionA severe viral enteritis affecting puppies and unvaccinated dogs.
Symptoms:: Profuse hemorrhagic diarrhea, vomiting, fever, lethargy, anorexia, dehydration, mucosal ulceration, and depression. Secondary bacterial infections are common.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics such as maropitant (1 mg/kg SC SID) or ondansetron (0.1–0.3 mg/kg IV/PO TID).
Causative:: No specific antiviral; interferon omega (2.5 MU/kg IV SID × 3 days) can reduce viral shedding.
Supportive:: Aggressive fluid therapy with crystalloids, broad-spectrum antibiotics (ampicillin, enrofloxacin), hyperimmune plasma, glutamine supplementation, and strict isolation. Intensive supportive care is critical for survival.

Canine Interdigital FurunculosisA chronic inflammatory and infectious pododermatitis involving interdigital spaces.
Symptoms:: Painful reddish nodules/boils between toes, swelling, purulent discharge, lameness, and licking/chewing of paws.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Warm compresses and antiseptic soaks (chlorhexidine 0.05% or diluted povidone-iodine).
Causative:: Systemic antibiotics (cefpodoxime, clindamycin) for bacterial cases; antifungals (itraconazole, ketoconazole) if fungal involvement.
Supportive:: Topical mupirocin, management of underlying causes (allergies, trauma, obesity), protective measures such as E-collars.

Pulmonary HypertensionA cardiovascular disorder characterized by increased pulmonary arterial pressure, most common in small-breed middle-aged to older dogs.
Symptoms:: Exercise intolerance, persistent cough, dyspnea, abnormal heart sounds, systolic murmurs, and signs of right-sided heart failure (ascites, edema) in severe cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen therapy and sedation with butorphanol during acute respiratory crisis.
Causative:: Address underlying disease such as heartworm or chronic lung disease.
Supportive:: Sildenafil (2–4 mg/kg PO q8–12h), tadalafil (1–2 mg/kg PO q24h), diuretics (furosemide 1–2 mg/kg PO/IV BID), ACE inhibitors (enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO BID), and antithrombotics (clopidogrel or low-dose aspirin). Regular echocardiographic monitoring required.

Acute Renal FailureA condition caused by acute tubular injury leading to sublethal damage, necrosis, or apoptosis.
Symptoms:: Polyuria, oliguria, or anuria; depression; lethargy; anorexia; vomiting and diarrhea (with or without melena); petechiae; seizures; and elevated BUN and creatinine levels.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics such as maropitant (1 mg/kg SC or PO SID) and gastroprotectants (famotidine 0.5–1 mg/kg IV or PO SID). Seizure control with clonazepam (0.1–0.5 mg/kg PO/IV) or gabapentin (10–20 mg/kg PO BID).
Causative:: No direct curative therapy; management focuses on removing underlying toxins, infections, or ischemic causes where identified.
Supportive:: Aggressive IV fluids with isotonic crystalloids (shock dose followed by tailored maintenance), mannitol 20% (0.5–1 g/kg IV over 15–20 min) or furosemide (2–4 mg/kg IV/IM) to promote diuresis, frequent electrolyte and acid–base monitoring, and dialysis in refractory cases.

Chronic Renal FailureA progressive loss of renal function over months, often associated with structural renal damage and sustained azotemia.
Symptoms:: Polyuria, polydipsia, anorexia, weight loss, lethargy, vomiting, halitosis, altered consciousness, seizures, and bleeding tendencies. Physical findings may include dehydration, poor hair coat, and poor body condition. Confirmed by azotemia with inadequately concentrated urine (<1.035 cats, <1.030 dogs) for >3 months.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics such as maropitant (1 mg/kg PO/SC SID) for vomiting, gabapentin (10–20 mg/kg PO BID) for seizures.
Causative:: No curative therapy—focus is on slowing disease progression and controlling proteinuria with ACE inhibitors (enalapril or benazepril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID).
Supportive:: Renal therapeutic diet (moderate protein restriction, phosphorus restriction, omega-3 supplementation), phosphate binders such as aluminum hydroxide (30–90 mg/kg/day mixed with food) when serum phosphorus is high, subcutaneous fluids in advanced stages, and routine monitoring of hydration, blood pressure, and electrolytes.

Feline Acute CholangiohepatitisAn ascending bacterial infection of the liver and biliary tract, often part of triaditis with pancreatitis and inflammatory bowel disease in cats.
Symptoms:: Jaundice, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, lethargy, and inappetence. Laboratory findings: increased ALT, ALP, and bilirubin levels.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics (maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID), hepatoprotectants such as S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe), and nutritional support via feeding tube if anorexia persists.
Causative:: Broad-spectrum antibiotics targeting gram-negative and anaerobic bacteria, e.g., Ampicillin (20–22 mg/kg IV or PO TID) + Enrofloxacin (5 mg/kg IV or PO SID), or Cefazolin (22 mg/kg IV TID) + Enrofloxacin. Alternatives: Ticarcillin/clavulanic acid (33–50 mg/kg IV QID) or Cefoxitin (30 mg/kg IV TID). Oral step-down therapy: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (13.75 mg/kg PO BID).
Supportive:: Aggressive IV fluid therapy with electrolyte correction, ongoing monitoring of hydration and electrolytes, and maintaining caloric intake.

Feline Upper Respiratory Infection Complex / Feline Calicivirus Infection (FCV)A highly contagious viral disease of cats, often with high morbidity but typically low mortality, transmitted via contact, fomites, or aerosolized droplets.
Symptoms:: Oculonasal discharge, conjunctivitis, lethargy, anorexia, sneezing, fever, oral ulcers, excessive salivation, corneal ulcers, coughing, and varying degrees of facial, limb, or ventral edema. Severe systemic forms may cause vasculitis and edema.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Subcutaneous fluids for dehydration, nutritional support, environmental humidity, oxytetracycline ophthalmic ointment TID for conjunctivitis, nebulized gentamicin (diluted 1:5 in saline) via face mask, and albuterol inhaler (1–2 puffs SID–BID) for bronchoconstriction.
Causative:: Antiviral therapy with famciclovir (90 mg/kg PO BID) in severe or chronic cases, particularly with ocular involvement.
Supportive:: Antibiotics for secondary bacterial infections (Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID or Amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID), plus continued hydration and nutritional management.

Feline DemodicosisA parasitic skin disease in cats caused by Demodex spp. mites, often resulting in localized or generalized skin lesions.
Symptoms:: Crusting pyoderma, papules on the head and neck, pruritus, and alopecia across the body.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Topical lime sulfur dips (2%) weekly for 4–6 weeks to reduce mite burden and improve skin lesions.
Causative:: Amitraz 0.3% solution topically every 14 days; systemic antimicrobials such as Clindamycin 5 mg/kg PO BID or Rifampin 10 mg/kg PO SID for 14–21 days to control secondary infections.
Supportive:: Monitoring of hepatic enzymes during systemic therapy; nutritional support and management of concurrent immunosuppressive conditions.

Canine Demodicosis (Demodectic Mange Infestation)A follicular parasitic skin disease caused by Demodex canis mites, commonly localized in young dogs or generalized in immunocompromised adults. Transmission occurs from the dam to puppies during the first days of life.
Symptoms:: Erythema, papules, pruritus, oily seborrhea, hyperpigmentation, alopecia, crusts, and erosions or ulcers of the skin and mucous membranes.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Clip hair and bathe with benzoyl peroxide shampoo (2.5%–3%) to flush follicles and reduce secondary infections.
Causative:: Oral isoxazolines (Afoxolaner 2.5 mg/kg PO monthly, Fluralaner 25 mg/kg PO q12w, Sarolaner 2–4 mg/kg PO monthly) as first-line therapy. Alternative options: Milbemycin oxime 1–2 mg/kg PO daily, Ivermectin 300–600 mcg/kg PO daily (monitor closely for MDR1 mutant breeds), or topical/oral Moxidectin 400 mcg/kg/day.
Supportive:: Amitraz dips (0.025%) every 7–14 days with close monitoring for adverse effects, plus nutritional support and management of concurrent immunosuppressive conditions.

Immune-Mediated Keratoconjunctivitis (Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca, KCS)An immune-mediated condition characterized by reduced tear production and chronic ocular surface inflammation.
Symptoms:: Conjunctivitis, excessive lacrimation, mucopurulent ocular discharge, corneal opacity, ocular discomfort, and progressive vision loss or blindness in advanced cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Artificial tears or lubricating gels applied 4–6 times daily to maintain corneal hydration and reduce irritation.
Causative:: Topical immunomodulators to stimulate tear production—Cyclosporine 0.2% ointment or Tacrolimus 0.03% (1 drop/eye BID). Oral Cyclosporine (5–7.5 mg/kg PO SID) may be used in refractory cases.
Supportive:: Fusidic acid 1 drop/eye BID if bacterial conjunctivitis is present, regular Schirmer tear testing, and monitoring for corneal ulceration throughout therapy.

Feline Idiopathic CystitisA common lower urinary tract disorder in young to middle-aged cats, often associated with stress and environmental factors, without identifiable infectious cause.
Symptoms:: Dysuria, stranguria, pollakiuria, hematuria, inappropriate urination (periuria), and excessive licking at the prepuce or genital area. Episodes are frequently stress-induced and non-obstructive.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Analgesia is essential: Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg SC or transmucosal TID, or Butorphanol 0.2–0.4 mg/kg SC q6–8h.
Causative:: Environmental modification and stress reduction are the primary therapeutic approaches; behavioral therapy with Amitriptyline 2.5–10 mg/cat PO SID, Clomipramine 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID, or Buspirone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID to reduce anxiety-related triggers.
Supportive:: Encouragement of water intake through wet food diets, water fountains, and multiple clean litter boxes. Antibiotics are not recommended unless a confirmed urinary tract infection is present.

Bacterial CystitisAscending bacterial infection of the bladder mucosa, most often caused by E. coli, Proteus, or Pseudomonas spp.
Symptoms: Pollakiuria, stranguria, hematuria, periuria (urination outside litter box), and sometimes polydipsia. Note: up to 10% of dogs may have subclinical bacteriuria with a positive urine culture but no clinical signs.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID may reduce inflammation and discomfort.
Causative: Empirical antibiotic therapy: Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–20 mg/kg PO BID, Cefadroxil 22–30 mg/kg PO BID. Alternatives: Nitrofurantoin 4.4 mg/kg PO BID for recurrent infections; Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only, caution in cats).
Supportive: Address underlying conditions (e.g., diabetes mellitus, hyperadrenocorticism, hyperthyroidism). Recheck urine culture after 7–10 days of therapy to ensure resolution.

DacryocystitisA disorder of the nasolacrimal system often caused by bacterial infection, foreign bodies, or tooth root abscess.
Symptoms:: Unilateral or bilateral conjunctivitis with recurrent mucoid to mucopurulent discharge, especially at the medial canthus. Discharge may be expressible by pressure or nasolacrimal irrigation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Nasolacrimal duct irrigation under anesthesia.
Causative:: Topical broad-spectrum antibiotics for bacterial infections; systemic antifungals if fungal etiology is confirmed.
Supportive:: Dacryocystotomy to remove foreign bodies if indicated.

Cholelithiasis or CholecystitisA disorder of the gallbladder characterized by stone formation or inflammation, often leading to bile duct obstruction.
Symptoms:: Acute abdominal pain with vomiting, lethargy, and anorexia due to biliary obstruction or gallbladder inflammation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID to control vomiting.
Causative:: Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid 20 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days.
Supportive:: Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV TID for pain relief; IV fluid therapy as required.

Epidermolysis BullosaA rare inherited mechanobullous disease characterized by fragility of the skin and mucous membranes due to defects in the epidermis or basement membrane zone.
Symptoms:: Erosions and ulcers on skin and mucous membranes, including footpads, oral cavity, claws, and bony prominences of the face. Lesions in dystrophic forms are more severe and widespread.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Gentle cleaning of lesions, wound care with hydrogel dressings, and pain control (e.g., Tramadol 2–4 mg/kg PO TID).
Causative:: No definitive cure; immunosuppressive therapy with Levamisole 2.5 mg/kg PO every other day, alone or with corticosteroids (Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID), may help in inflammatory variants.
Supportive:: Protection of affected areas to avoid trauma, nutritional support, and monitoring of secondary infections. Prognosis depends on subtype and severity; humane euthanasia may be required in severe cases.

Bacterial Infective EndocarditisMicrobial colonization of cardiac valves (usually mitral or aortic), leading to erosive or proliferative valvular lesions and progressive insufficiency. Low incidence in dogs, rare in cats.
Symptoms: Lameness, lethargy, anorexia, dyspnea, coughing, weakness, collapse. Cardiac findings: new or changing murmur, ventricular arrhythmias, supraventricular tachycardia, mild fever.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Antiarrhythmic drugs and management of congestive heart failure as indicated.
Causative: Empirical antibiotics (start after blood cultures drawn). Acute: Amikacin 20 mg/kg IV SID (monitor renal function) + Ticarcillin-clavulanate 50 mg/kg IV QID. Chronic/stable: Imipenem 10 mg/kg SC TID or Amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO TID. Enrofloxacin 5–10 mg/kg PO SID–BID may be added. Bartonella cases: Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID or Azithromycin 5–10 mg/kg PO SID for 7–10 days.
Supportive: Treatment duration 6–8 weeks with regular echocardiography and blood culture monitoring. Provide supportive care for cardiac function and overall systemic health.

Nocardiosis in DogsInfectious disease caused by Nocardia spp., gram-positive, partially acid-fast, filamentous bacteria. Infection occurs via wound contamination or inhalation, affecting skin, lungs, or spreading systemically.
Symptoms: Firm or fluctuant subcutaneous nodules, draining tracts with purulent discharge (limbs, feet, trunk), lameness with joint or deep tissue involvement.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Surgical excision and debridement of necrotic or draining lesions.
Causative: Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) 15–30 mg/kg PO BID is first-line. Alternatives: Amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID, Doxycycline 5–10 mg/kg PO BID, Minocycline 5 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive: Therapy duration 1–3 months or longer depending on severity. Monitor hepatic and renal function during prolonged antibiotic use.

Urinary Tract NeoplasiaMost often transitional cell carcinoma (TCC), especially in the bladder trigone; less common in cats.
Symptoms: Persistent/recurrent hematuria, dysuria, stranguria, pollakiuria; advanced cases may show obstruction or hydronephrosis.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID for anti-inflammatory and antitumor effects. Urinary catheterization for obstruction relief.
Causative: Chemotherapy: Vinblastine 2 mg/m² IV q2w, Mitoxantrone 5–6 mg/m² IV q3w, Chlorambucil 4 mg/m² PO q48h, or Toceranib phosphate (Palladia) 2.75 mg/kg PO EOD. Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO SID may be used adjunctively.
Supportive: Surgical debulking can be considered, but complete excision is rarely feasible. Support hydration and urinary comfort, and monitor tumor progression with imaging.

Lower Urinary Tract Infection (LUTI)Infectious condition affecting the bladder and urethra, more common in female dogs; feline cases often overlap with idiopathic cystitis.
Symptoms: Hematuria, dysuria, pollakiuria, stranguria; halitosis in systemic illness/uremia; acute abdominal pain in severe or ascending infections.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Analgesia for dysuria; fluids for hydration and to aid bladder clearance.
Causative: Empirical antibiotics pending culture. Options: Cefixime 5 mg/kg PO SID for 7–14 days (uncomplicated cases), Ceftazidime 30 mg/kg IV BID (severe/hospitalized), Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO/SC/IV SID for 7–10 days (caution in cats), Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–20 mg/kg PO BID, or Trimethoprim-sulfonamide 15–30 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive: Repeat culture post-therapy to confirm clearance. Manage underlying conditions (e.g., diabetes, CKD) to reduce recurrence risk.

Systemic HypertensionCommonly secondary to CKD, hyperthyroidism (cats), diabetes mellitus, Cushing’s disease, or pheochromocytoma.
Symptoms: Acute blindness, seizures, epistaxis, sneezing with discharge, dyspnea, collapse. Target organ damage includes retinal detachment, neurologic deficits, LV hypertrophy, proteinuria, or azotemia.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Control hypertensive emergencies with hydralazine 0.5–2 mg/kg PO BID; manage seizures or acute blindness supportively.
Causative: Treat underlying disease (CKD, hyperthyroidism, diabetes, endocrine tumors).
Supportive: Cats: Amlodipine 0.125–0.25 mg/kg PO SID (first-line); add telmisartan 1–2 mg/kg PO SID or benazepril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID–BID if proteinuria present. Dogs: Enalapril or benazepril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID–BID; add amlodipine 0.1–0.2 mg/kg PO SID–BID if needed. Adjuncts: Atenolol 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID (arrhythmias), Prazosin 0.5–2 mg/kg PO BID, Phenoxybenzamine 0.25–1 mg/kg PO BID (pheochromocytoma), Diazoxide 5–20 mg/kg PO q8h (for acute BP control). Regular BP monitoring and titration essential.

Granulomatous Meningoencephalitis (GME) Immune-mediated inflammatory disorder of the CNS, mainly in young to middle-aged small breed dogs. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs, MRI, CSF analysis, and exclusion of infectious causes.
Symptoms: Seizures, head tilt, blindness, ataxia, circling, focal or multifocal neurological deficits.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anticonvulsants such as clonazepam 0.01–0.05 mg/kg PO BID or gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO BID–TID for seizure control.
Causative: Immunosuppression to target the underlying immune-mediated inflammation. Prednisolone 2 mg/kg/day PO initially, tapered gradually over months. Adjunctive agents include cytarabine (50–100 mg/m² IV or SC q12h for 2 days, repeated q3–4 weeks), lomustine (60–90 mg/m² PO q6–8 weeks), or cyclosporine (5 mg/kg PO BID).
Supportive: Ongoing monitoring for relapse, physiotherapy for neurological deficits, pain management, and long-term follow-up. Early, aggressive, and sustained immunosuppression improves prognosis, though relapses are common and lifelong management may be required.

Histoplasmosis in Cats (Systemic Mycosis) A systemic fungal infection caused by Histoplasma capsulatum, usually acquired via inhalation of spores from contaminated environments. The disease often begins in the lungs or gastrointestinal tract and may disseminate to lymph nodes, liver, spleen, bone marrow, and eyes. Cats are more susceptible than dogs.
Symptoms: Pale mucous membranes (anemia), progressive weight loss, dyspnea, tachypnea, harsh or crackling lung sounds, draining skin nodules, eyelid granulomas, optic neuritis, and blindness.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care including nutritional support, management of respiratory distress, and monitoring of organ function.
Causative: Itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID for 4–6 months (continue at least 1 month beyond clinical resolution). In severe/disseminated cases, Amphotericin B lipid complex 1–3 mg/kg IV twice weekly followed by azole therapy. Fluconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO BID preferred for CNS or ocular involvement due to better penetration.
Supportive: Regular monitoring of liver enzymes and CBC during antifungal therapy. Topical ketoconazole preparations are ineffective and should not be used.

Histoplasmosis in Dogs (Systemic Mycosis) A systemic fungal infection caused by Histoplasma capsulatum, a dimorphic fungus found in soil enriched with bird or bat droppings. Infection occurs via inhalation or ingestion of spores. It often begins in the lungs or gastrointestinal tract and disseminates to other organs. Dogs often show GI signs, while cats more frequently exhibit respiratory or disseminated forms.
Symptoms:: Diarrhea with tenesmus and fresh blood, melena, fever, severe weight loss, tachypnea, dyspnea, blindness, oral ulceration, lameness, nodular skin lesions, history of exposure to bird or bat feces.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Corticosteroids (Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID short-term) in cases with significant pulmonary inflammation or airway obstruction; Oxygen therapy for dyspnea; Nutritional support and IV fluids.
Causative:: Itraconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID for 4–6 months (or 1 month beyond resolution). Fluconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO BID as alternative, especially with CNS involvement. Amphotericin B (liposomal or lipid-complex) 0.5–1 mg/kg IV EOD to twice weekly for severe/disseminated cases, cumulative dose ≤8–10 mg/kg (renal monitoring required).
Supportive:: Monitor hepatic enzymes during prolonged azole therapy; Long-term adherence to antifungal treatment; Regular follow-up to assess organ involvement. Prognosis varies from guarded to good depending on severity and response to therapy. Minimal zoonotic risk, but caution with contaminated soil or feces.

Vacuolar and Steroid Hepatopathy A hepatocellular storage disorder associated with chronic exposure to exogenous corticosteroids or endogenous steroid overproduction (e.g., hyperadrenocorticism). Terriers may be predisposed. Steroid hepatopathy is rarely reported in cats.
Symptoms: Polyuria, polyphagia, nocturnal restlessness, excessive panting, progressive weight gain, ventral/lateral alopecia, muscle wasting, pendulous abdomen, and palpable hepatomegaly. Serum ALP markedly increased, ALT mildly elevated, icterus usually absent.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor liver enzyme trends and manage clinical signs.
Causative: Gradual taper and discontinue exogenous glucocorticoids. If endogenous (Cushing’s), treat with trilostane 1–2 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive: Ursodeoxycholic acid 10–15 mg/kg PO SID–BID; S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) 18–20 mg/kg PO SID. Prognosis good if underlying cause is resolved.

Cryptosporidiosis A protozoal infection caused by Cryptosporidium canis in dogs and Cryptosporidium felis in cats. Zoonotic; transmitted via fecal-oral route. Often asymptomatic but more severe in young or immunocompromised animals.
Symptoms: Small-bowel diarrhea (most common), anorexia, weight loss in cats. Chronic large-bowel diarrhea less common.
Treatment Symptomatic: Hydration, nutritional support, and management of diarrhea.
Causative: Azithromycin 10–15 mg/kg PO SID for 7–10 days. Tylosin 11 mg/kg PO BID in food for 21–28 days. Paromomycin 150 mg/kg PO SID × 5 days (caution: nephrotoxic).
Supportive: Ongoing supportive care is critical in young or debilitated patients to prevent dehydration and malnutrition.

Arcobacter cryaerophilus Infection An emerging gastrointestinal pathogen associated with chronic enteritis in dogs, often foodborne or waterborne in origin. It may be underdiagnosed and can mimic other chronic enteropathies.
Symptoms: Chronic vomiting (often bile-stained), diarrhea, progressive weight loss, and severe emaciation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Butylscopolamine 0.3–0.5 mg/kg IM or PO BID for spasmodic symptoms; bismuth subsalicylate 0.5–1 mL/kg PO TID for mucosal protection.
Causative: Antimicrobials: ceftiofur 2.2 mg/kg SC SID, cefotaxime 30 mg/kg IV/IM/SC BID, or cefuroxime 10–15 mg/kg PO BID. Adjunctive agents include metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID × 10–14 days or doxycycline/tetracycline 10 mg/kg PO BID × 14 days.
Supportive: Probiotic supplementation, dietary management, and hydration/nutritional support during recovery.

Ureteral Obstruction A condition characterized by blockage of one or both ureters, leading to impaired urine flow from the kidneys to the bladder. Most common causes include ureteroliths (especially calcium oxalate in cats), strictures, blood clots, neoplasia, perineal hernia, or prostatic enlargement.
Symptoms:: Inappetence, vomiting, lethargy, progressive weight loss. In bilateral obstruction: severe uremia, hyperkalemia, bradycardia, and life-threatening metabolic derangements.
Treatment Symptomatic:: IV fluid therapy with balanced crystalloids (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s at 60–90 mL/kg/day) to manage dehydration and support renal perfusion.
Causative:: If medical management fails, surgical interventions such as ureterotomy, neoureterocystostomy, or placement of a subcutaneous ureteral bypass (SUB) device are indicated.
Supportive:: – Calcium gluconate 50–100 mg/kg IV slowly over 10–20 minutes for cardioprotection in hyperkalemia.
– Regular insulin 0.25–0.5 U/kg IV + Dextrose 0.5–1 g/kg IV to shift potassium intracellularly.
– Sodium bicarbonate 1–3 mEq/kg IV if metabolic acidosis is present.
– Consider hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis in cases of severe azotemia or refractory electrolyte disturbances.
– Close monitoring of BUN, creatinine, and potassium is essential post-treatment.

Vaginal Hyperplasia, Prolapse, and Edema A hormonally driven condition seen primarily in young, intact bitches during proestrus or estrus. Estrogen stimulation causes mucosal hypertrophy and protrusion of vaginal tissue. Rarely seen in cats.
Symptoms:: Pink to red protruding vaginal mass, perineal swelling, excessive licking, dysuria, stranguria, or pollakiuria.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Use an Elizabethan collar to prevent trauma. Clean protruding tissue with sterile saline and apply topical antibiotic or anti-inflammatory ointments (e.g., silver sulfadiazine).
Causative:: Leuprolide acetate (100 µg/kg SC) or deslorelin implant (4.7 mg SC) to suppress estrus. Vulvar retention sutures (purse-string) can be used for temporary reduction.
Supportive:: Administer antibiotics (e.g., Clavamox 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID) if secondary infection is present. NSAIDs (e.g., Carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID) may be given for inflammation.
Definitive:: Ovariohysterectomy is curative and prevents recurrence.

Anaplasmosis (Tick Fever, Canine Tropical Anemia) A tick-borne disease of dogs caused by Anaplasma phagocytophilum or Anaplasma platys, transmitted by Ixodes ticks. Dogs are more commonly affected than cats.
Symptoms: Fever, lethargy, inappetence, shifting-leg lameness (polyarthritis), joint pain, weight loss, pale mucous membranes, and tick infestation. Severe cases may present with dyspnea and neurologic signs.
Treatment Causative: Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID or 10 mg/kg PO SID for 14–28 days is the treatment of choice. Clinical improvement is typically seen within 24–48 hours.
Symptomatic: Pain management for joint pain and lameness; antipyretics if fever is significant.
Supportive: Blood transfusion or supportive care in cases of severe anemia or thrombocytopenia; manage co-infections (e.g., Ehrlichia). Monitor CBC and platelet count during and after therapy. Tick prevention is essential to avoid reinfection.

Sinus Bradycardia (Secondary to Increased Intracranial Pressure) A cardiovascular manifestation of increased intracranial pressure, often seen with trauma, tumors, abscesses, inflammation, or hemorrhage affecting brainstem autonomic control.
Symptoms: Sinus bradycardia, altered mentation, anisocoria, cranial nerve deficits, ataxia, and signs of Cushing’s reflex (bradycardia, hypertension, irregular respiration).
Treatment Causative: Address the underlying cause of intracranial pressure (e.g., trauma, tumor, abscess, hemorrhage, inflammation). Definitive treatment may involve medical stabilization or surgical intervention.
Symptomatic: For bradycardia—Atropine sulfate 0.02–0.04 mg/kg IV or IM, or Glycopyrrolate 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV, IM, or SC.
Supportive: Emergency measures to reduce cerebral edema: Mannitol 0.5–1.0 g/kg IV over 15–20 minutes, or Hypertonic saline (3–7% NaCl) 4–5 mL/kg IV over 10–15 minutes. Maintain head elevation (~30°), avoid jugular compression, and ensure normocapnia. Continuous monitoring of neurologic and cardiovascular status is essential.

Intracranial Myiasis Most common in summer months when adult flies (e.g., Cuterebra spp.) deposit ova. Typically affects outdoor cats (rarely dogs).
Symptoms: Acute-onset seizures, behavioral changes, unilateral facial hypalgesia, nonresponsive dilated pupil, sneezing, and menace deficit.
Causative: Aberrant migration of Cuterebra larvae into the central nervous system causing inflammation and necrosis.
Treatment Causative: Ivermectin 400 µg/kg SC (not mg/kg) off-label, with caution. Surgical removal may be attempted if larvae are accessible.
Symptomatic: Diphenhydramine 4 mg/kg IM to mitigate hypersensitivity. Dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg IV to reduce CNS inflammation. Repeat in 24 hours if signs persist.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum antibiotics to prevent secondary infection (e.g., third-generation cephalosporin, trimethoprim-sulfa 15–30 mg/kg PO BID, or metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID). Intensive nursing and seizure management as needed. Prognosis is guarded due to risk of progressive neurologic damage.

Pharyngitis and Tonsillitis Inflammation of the pharynx and tonsils, commonly bacterial but may be secondary to viral infections, foreign bodies, or chronic irritation.
Symptoms: Coughing, gagging, retching, dysphagia, repeated swallowing attempts, hypersalivation, white foamy mucus (often mistaken for vomiting), fever, head shaking, and oral discomfort. On exam, tonsils appear hyperemic, enlarged, sometimes with petechiations. Unilateral disease may suggest foreign body involvement.
Causative: Often bacterial infection (e.g., streptococci, mixed flora), foreign bodies (grass awns, sticks, seeds), or secondary to viral upper respiratory disease.
Treatment Causative: Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–20 mg/kg PO BID for 10–14 days, or amoxicillin 20–25 mg/kg PO TID. Remove foreign body if present.
Symptomatic: Prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID for 3–5 days to reduce swelling. Analgesics such as meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID or tramadol 2–4 mg/kg PO TID.
Supportive: Soft food, hydration, rest. Tonsillectomy may be indicated in chronic, recurrent, or obstructive cases unresponsive to medical therapy.

Erythrocytic Parasites Hemotrophic mycoplasmas (e.g., Mycoplasma haemofelis in cats, M. haemocanis in dogs) are epicellular erythrocyte parasites inducing immune-mediated hemolysis. Cats are more commonly affected than dogs.
Symptoms:: Hemolytic anemia, fever, pallor, lethargy, weakness.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID in severe hemolysis to reduce immune-mediated destruction.
Causative:: Doxycycline 5–10 mg/kg PO BID for 21 days (first-line). Enrofloxacin 5–10 mg/kg PO SID if unresponsive.
Supportive:: Blood transfusion in cases of severe anemia. Regular follow-up to monitor relapse or chronic anemia. Recovered animals may remain asymptomatic carriers, especially in cats.

Feline Urolithiasis Feline urolithiasis commonly affects male cats due to their narrow urethra. Obstruction is usually caused by mineral crystals or calculi, most often struvite or calcium oxalate. Obstruction is a medical emergency requiring immediate intervention.
Symptoms:: Dysuria (straining), hematuria, frequent urination with minimal output, penile licking, vomiting, lethargy, severe weight loss.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Analgesics (e.g., buprenorphine), anti-inflammatories (e.g., meloxicam).
Causative:: Urethral catheterization under general anesthesia to relieve obstruction. If unsuccessful: manual expression or retrograde urohydropulsion. Surgical options: perineal urethrostomy for recurrent/persistent obstruction. Allopurinol 10 mg/kg PO SID for urate stone-forming cats. Bethanechol 2.5 mg/cat PO q8h may aid bladder contraction.
Supportive:: IV fluids to correct dehydration, support renal function, and manage post-obstructive diuresis. Stone analysis and dietary modification (low magnesium, urine-acidifying diets) to prevent recurrence. Close monitoring for relapse and chronic lower urinary tract signs.

Canine Urolithiasis Canine urolithiasis refers to the presence of calculi (stones) within the urinary tract, which may lead to obstruction, inflammation, or infection. Common stone types include struvite, calcium oxalate, urate, and cystine, with risk factors depending on breed, diet, and urinary pH.
Symptoms:: Polyuria, hematuria, dysuria (straining to urinate), urinary incontinence, frequent urination of small volumes, blood-tinged urine, abdominal pain, flank biting, urinary retention.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Analgesics and spasmolytics (e.g., opioids, NSAIDs) for pain relief; Ephedrine 1 mg/kg PO BID to improve urethral sphincter tone.
Causative:: Urethral catheterization under general anesthesia to relieve obstruction. If unsuccessful: retrograde urohydropulsion or manual assistance via rectal palpation. Surgical interventions (cystotomy, scrotal urethrostomy in males) may be required for recurrent or unmanageable stones. Allopurinol 10 mg/kg PO BID in urate stone formers (e.g., Dalmatians). Bethanechol 2.5 mg/dog PO q8h for detrusor atony.
Supportive:: Dietary modifications tailored to stone type (e.g., dissolution diets for struvite). Regular follow-up with urinalysis and imaging to monitor recurrence.

Esophagitis Esophagitis refers to inflammation of the esophageal lining, often due to gastroesophageal reflux, caustic medications, foreign bodies, or prolonged vomiting. Drug-induced esophagitis is commonly linked with doxycycline or clindamycin tablets in cats.
Symptoms:: Dysphagia, regurgitation, ptyalism, melena (black tarry feces), anorexia, weight loss, refusal to eat despite showing interest in food.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Pain management with opioids (e.g., buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV/SC q8h). Feeding soft, low-fat, high-protein diet in small, frequent meals; elevating food bowls to reduce reflux.
Causative:: Omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO SID for acid suppression. Metoclopramide 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO TID to improve gastric emptying and reduce reflux.
Supportive:: Sucralfate 0.5–1 g PO TID to coat and protect the esophageal mucosa. Avoid oral medications that may lodge in the esophagus without water, especially in cats.

Feline Bartonellosis A zoonotic, arthropod-borne bacterial infection caused by Bartonella spp., fastidious gram-negative organisms. Cats serve as the primary reservoir, and transmission occurs via fleas, ticks, and scratches.
Symptoms:: Fever, polyarthritis, uveitis, oral ulcers or stomatitis, urinary tract disorders, peripheral lymphadenomegaly.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Triamcinolone acetonide 1% dental paste (e.g., GENERLOG oral) applied to inflamed oral lesions.
Causative:: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO BID for 4 weeks (first-line). Azithromycin 10 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days as an alternative or adjunct. Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID for possible co-infections. Erythromycin less commonly used due to variable efficacy.
Supportive:: Strict flea and tick control measures. Close monitoring for clinical response. Zoonotic precautions emphasized, especially for immunocompromised owners.

Canine Bartonellosis Caused by Bartonella spp., gram-negative intracellular bacteria. Transmission may occur via ticks or cat scratches.
Symptoms: Uveitis, polyarthritis, intermittent lameness, bradyarrhythmias, bone pain.
Treatment Causative: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID with food for 4–6 weeks (first-line). Resistant cases: may combine with Rifampin 10–15 mg/kg PO SID or Azithromycin 10 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive: Atropine 0.1 mg/kg IV for uveitis; avoid NSAIDs like naproxen unless prescribed cautiously by a specialist.
Prognosis: Good with timely diagnosis and appropriate antimicrobial therapy; chronic or relapsing cases may require long-term monitoring.

Pleural Effusion Pleural effusion is the accumulation of fluid within the pleural cavity and can be caused by congestive heart failure, neoplasia, pyothorax, chylothorax, or hypoalbuminemia. It leads to impaired lung expansion and reduced oxygen exchange.
Symptoms:: Dyspnea, tachypnea, muffled heart and lung sounds, coughing, respiratory distress, possible collapse.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Thoracocentesis at the 7th–9th intercostal space using a butterfly or over-the-needle catheter to remove fluid and relieve dyspnea. Oxygen supplementation. Bromhexine 0.5–1 mg/kg PO or IM BID as mucolytic adjunct.
Causative:: Antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID) for pyothorax; diuretics (e.g., furosemide 2 mg/kg IV/IM BID) for cardiogenic causes; surgical intervention for neoplasia or persistent chylothorax.
Supportive:: Ongoing monitoring with thoracic imaging and pleural fluid analysis to guide therapy.

Opisthorchis Felineus Infection Opisthorchis felineus is a liver fluke acquired from eating raw or undercooked freshwater fish. The parasite inhabits the bile ducts and may cause cholangitis, hepatomegaly, or liver dysfunction. Cats are more commonly affected than dogs.
Symptoms:: Peripheral edema, ascites, lethargy, and a history of raw fish consumption.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Hepatoprotectants such as S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) or ursodeoxycholic acid (10–15 mg/kg PO SID) to support liver function.
Causative:: Praziquantel 20 mg/kg PO or IM once; repeat dose after 14 days in chronic or heavily infested cases.
Supportive:: Nutritional support, regular monitoring of liver enzymes, and strict prevention by avoiding raw or undercooked freshwater fish in endemic areas.

Urinary Tract Obstruction A potentially life-threatening emergency commonly caused by urolithiasis, urethral plugs, or neoplasia. It leads to bladder overdistension, post-renal azotemia, and electrolyte imbalances (e.g., hyperkalemia).
Symptoms:: Hematuria and acute abdominal pain.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Butylscopolamine (0.1–0.2 mg/kg IM or SC) for urethral relaxation; analgesia as needed; decompressive cystocentesis if immediate catheterization is not possible.
Causative:: Urethral catheterization under general anesthesia to relieve obstruction; surgical procedures such as perineal urethrostomy or cystotomy in recurrent or refractory cases.
Supportive:: IV fluids (e.g., isotonic crystalloids) to correct azotemia/electrolyte imbalances; enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO or IV SID for secondary UTI; monitor for post-obstructive diuresis; preventive management with dietary modification and hydration.

Feline Hemoplasmosis Feline Hemoplasmosis is caused by epicellular gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Mycoplasma haemofelis, M. haemominutum, and Candidatus M. turicensis) that parasitize feline erythrocytes. These organisms are transmitted by arthropods or iatrogenically and cannot survive long outside the host.
Symptoms:: Moderate to severe hemolytic anemia, pale mucous membranes, tachypnea, lethargy, intermittent fever, weakness, icterus, dehydration, inappetence, and weight loss.
Treatment Symptomatic:: IV crystalloids for dehydration; blood transfusion if PCV < 15% to stabilize anemic patients.
Causative:: Doxycycline 5–10 mg/kg PO BID for 21 days as first-line therapy; Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO SID for 14 days in refractory cases.
Supportive:: Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days if immune-mediated hemolysis is suspected; regular monitoring of hematocrit and reticulocyte counts; minimize stress to prevent relapse, as recovered cats may remain carriers.

Tropical Canine Hemoplasmosis Canine hemoplasmosis is caused by the epicellular parasite Mycoplasma haemocanis, which attaches to erythrocytes. It is more likely to cause clinical disease in immunocompromised or splenectomized dogs.
Symptoms: Pale mucous membranes, lethargy, anorexia, icterus; in severe or untreated cases, acute hemolytic anemia may cause collapse and death.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids, nutritional support, close monitoring of hematocrit and clinical status; blood transfusion if severe anemia is present.
Causative: Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID for 21 days (first-line). Alternatives: Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO SID for 10 days, Tetracycline 22 mg/kg PO TID, or Oxytetracycline 20 mg/kg PO TID for 21 days (less preferred due to GI side effects).
Supportive: Prognosis is good with prompt diagnosis and appropriate therapy.

Shigellosis (Cat) A zoonotic bacterial infection caused by Shigella spp., more common in non-domestic felids. Domestic cats are generally resistant, and clinical disease is rare but may occur in immunocompromised individuals or young kittens.
Symptoms:: Most cats are asymptomatic carriers, but when present: acute or chronic diarrhea, sometimes with mucus or blood.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Fluid therapy to correct dehydration; probiotics and high-fiber diet to aid intestinal recovery.
Causative:: Trimethoprim-sulfonamide 15–30 mg/kg PO or IV q12h for 5–7 days (first-line); Amoxicillin 10–20 mg/kg PO/IV q8h or Ampicillin 10–20 mg/kg IV q8h if culture indicates; Tetracycline 10–25 mg/kg PO q8h (less preferred due to resistance).
Supportive:: Probiotics to restore gut flora; strict zoonotic precautions in multi-pet or immunocompromised households.

Shigellosis (Dog) A zoonotic bacterial disease caused by gram-negative Shigella spp., more common in primates and humans. In dogs, it is rare but may be transmitted through ingestion of fecally contaminated material, particularly in unsanitary environments or kennel settings.
Symptoms:: Acute large bowel diarrhea with mucus and hematochezia, tenesmus, fever, dehydration, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Dogs are generally resistant, but immunocompromised or stressed individuals are at risk.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids for dehydration; bland, highly digestible diet; monitor systemic signs.
Causative: Targeted antimicrobial therapy based on culture and sensitivity when possible. First-line: Trimethoprim-sulfonamide 15–30 mg/kg PO or IV BID for 7 days. Alternatives: Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID, Chloramphenicol 50 mg/kg PO TID, or Tetracycline 22 mg/kg PO TID (avoid in young or pregnant animals).
Supportive: Isolation if necessary due to zoonotic potential. Prognosis good with early treatment.

Arterial Thromboembolism A life-threatening condition most often associated with underlying cardiac disease, especially hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) in cats. Thrombi typically originate in the left atrium and embolize to distal arterial sites, commonly the aortic trifurcation ("saddle thrombus").
Symptoms:: Sudden onset of hind limb paresis or paralysis, severe pain, cold or cyanotic extremities, absent femoral pulse, muscle contracture.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Analgesia with Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg SC/IM/IV q8h or Hydromorphone 0.05–0.1 mg/kg IM/IV q6–8h; Sedation with Acepromazine 0.01–0.05 mg/kg IM/SC for anxiety.
Causative:: Clopidogrel 18.75 mg PO SID in cats (or 1–4 mg/kg PO SID in dogs); Enoxaparin 1 mg/kg SC q12h or Unfractionated Heparin 75–100 U/kg SC q8h; Aspirin 5–10 mg/kg PO q48–72h for chronic prevention.
Supportive:: Oxygen therapy if dyspneic; cardiovascular management (especially HCM); physical therapy for limb recovery. Prognosis is guarded; recurrence common without long-term anticoagulation.

Peripheral Vestibular Syndrome An acute disorder affecting the vestibular portion of the cranial nerve VIII or inner ear structures. It is idiopathic in most feline cases (commonly seen in summer), and can also be caused by otitis media/interna, ototoxic drugs, or trauma. It typically affects older dogs and cats of all ages.
Symptoms:: Sudden onset of head tilt, asymmetrical ataxia, horizontal or rotatory nystagmus, disorientation; severe cases may show falling, rolling, and vomiting (particularly in dogs).
Treatment Symptomatic:: Anti-nausea therapy with Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC/PO SID or Metoclopramide 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO/IV TID; IV fluids if unable to drink.
Causative:: Treat underlying causes if present (e.g., Otitis: Clindamycin 5.5 mg/kg PO BID or Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO SID for suspected inner ear infection).
Supportive:: Hydration support, safe and quiet environment. Most animals improve spontaneously within 72 hours, with recovery in 2–4 weeks; mild residual head tilt may persist. Prognosis excellent in idiopathic cases.

Rabies Virus InfectionA zoonotic, invariably fatal viral encephalitis caused by a single-stranded RNA virus of the family Rhabdoviridae, affecting all mammals including humans.
Symptoms:: Progression through three stages —
Prodromal stage: nervousness, anxiety, apprehension;
Furious stage: hyperexcitability, aggression, dysphagia with excessive salivation, incoordination, seizures;
Dumb (paralytic) stage: progressive paralysis, coma, and respiratory arrest.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: No effective symptomatic treatment once clinical signs appear.
Causative:: Not available — the disease is considered universally fatal after onset of symptoms.
Supportive:: Strict isolation and humane euthanasia of suspected animals as per public health regulations. Prevention is critical: initial rabies vaccination at 12–16 weeks of age, booster at one year, then every 1–3 years depending on vaccine type and local law. In humans, post-exposure prophylaxis with rabies vaccine and rabies immunoglobulin is effective if given before symptoms develop.

Acetaminophen Poisoning (Paracetamol Poisoning)A life-threatening toxicosis, particularly severe in cats due to deficient glucuronyl transferase activity, leading to oxidative damage of red blood cells and hepatocytes. Dogs are less sensitive but still at risk with high or repeated doses.
Symptoms:: Anorexia, vomiting, lethargy, weakness, facial or paw edema, cyanosis, dyspnea, hypothermia, hematuria, and icterus (especially in cats).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen supplementation, IV fluids, and monitoring of liver enzymes and methemoglobinemia.
Causative:: Administer N-acetylcysteine (NAC) 140 mg/kg PO or IV loading dose, followed by 70 mg/kg q6h for 7 doses (total 8). In cats, methionine 50–100 mg/kg PO q6–12h for up to 3 days if NAC unavailable. Activated charcoal may be given within 1–2 h post-ingestion.
Supportive:: Continuous monitoring, nutritional support, and management of hepatic injury. Prognosis depends on dose, species, and rapidity of treatment.

Cardiovascular CollapseA critical emergency condition resulting from arrhythmias, shock, severe cardiac disease, or drug reactions. Immediate stabilization is essential to prevent death.
Symptoms:: Tachyarrhythmias, hypotension, weak pulses, pale mucous membranes, cold extremities, and collapse.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Continuous monitoring of ECG, blood pressure, and perfusion parameters; oxygen therapy as needed.
Causative:: If tachyarrhythmia confirmed, Atenolol 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID for stable patients; Propranolol 0.02–0.06 mg/kg IV slowly or Esmolol 0.025–0.5 mg/kg/min CRI for acute stabilization. Lidocaine 1–2 mg/kg IV bolus followed by 25–75 µg/kg/min CRI for ventricular arrhythmias in dogs.
Supportive:: Fluid resuscitation with isotonic crystalloids (10–20 mL/kg IV bolus over 15–20 min) if hypovolemic/distributive shock, used cautiously in cardiogenic shock. Treat underlying cause simultaneously.

Oropharyngeal Dysphagia DisordersDysfunction in the oral or pharyngeal phase of swallowing, often due to neuromuscular disorders, anatomical abnormalities, or inflammatory disease affecting the pharynx, larynx, or cranial nerves.
Symptoms:: Dysphagia, excessive drooling, dropping food from the mouth, repeated swallowing attempts of the same bolus, nasal discharge, gagging, coughing during eating, and postswallowing cough (especially with liquids).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Nutritional support with pharyngoesophageal or feeding tubes; manage aspiration pneumonia; ensure hydration and caloric intake.
Causative:: Surgical correction such as cricopharyngeal myotomy in cases like cricopharyngeal achalasia; treat underlying neuromuscular or inflammatory disease.
Supportive:: Aminophylline 5–8 mg/kg PO TID to enhance smooth muscle relaxation; Terbutaline 0.2–0.3 mg/kg PO BID in dogs or 0.01–0.02 mg/kg PO BID in cats to aid laryngeal function; Albuterol (100 µg/actuation via inhaler + spacer) for bronchospasm relief.

ObesityAn excessive accumulation of adipose tissue, typically exceeding 15–20% of ideal body weight. A risk factor for orthopedic disease, diabetes mellitus, hepatic lipidosis, and respiratory compromise, particularly in brachycephalic breeds.
Symptoms:: Panting, heat intolerance, abdominal distension, visible or palpable abdominal fat, reduced exercise tolerance.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Monitor body weight weekly; address concurrent disorders such as orthopedic pain or respiratory difficulty.
Causative:: Caloric restriction using a prescription weight-loss diet high in protein and fiber; Dirlotapide (Slentrol®) at 0.01 mL/kg PO SID (adjust dose based on tolerance and weight loss response).
Supportive:: Increase physical activity as tolerated, gradual weight loss of 1–2% body weight per week, long-term client education to prevent relapse. Pharmacological agents should be used only under veterinary supervision.

Feline ObesityA nutritional disorder characterized by excessive body fat accumulation, increasing risk for metabolic and orthopedic disease.
Symptoms: Body condition score over 6/9, reduced grooming ability, exercise intolerance, and increased risk of diabetes mellitus, arthritis, and hepatic lipidosis.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Encourage physical activity with interactive toys, laser play, and food puzzles.
Causative: Weight loss plan with prescription diet (e.g., Metabolic or Satiety Support), feeding based on ideal weight with measured portions (~60–70 kcal/kg/day).
Supportive: Monitor weight monthly, target 0.5–1% loss per week, and avoid rapid reduction to prevent hepatic lipidosis.

Primary Hypoparathyroidism in Cats A rare endocrine disorder caused by insufficient secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH), resulting in hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia. Most commonly idiopathic or secondary to thyroidectomy.
Symptoms:: Muscle tremors, facial rubbing, twitching, generalized seizures, stiff gait, behavioral changes, anorexia, weakness, and lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Control seizures and tetany with slow IV calcium administration.
Causative:: Lifelong calcium and vitamin D (calcitriol) supplementation to correct and maintain serum calcium levels.
Supportive:: Acute: Calcium gluconate 10% at 0.5–1.5 mL/kg IV slowly over 10–20 minutes with ECG monitoring.
Chronic: Oral calcium carbonate 40–90 mg/kg/day PO in divided doses, calcitriol 2.5–10 ng/kg/day PO. Monitor ionized calcium levels to guide therapy.

Primary Hypoparathyroidism in Dogs A rare endocrine disorder caused by insufficient production of parathyroid hormone (PTH), leading to hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia. Most commonly seen in young to middle-aged female dogs.
Symptoms:: Muscle tremors, twitching, tetany, ataxia, disorientation, seizures, panting, weakness, polyuria, polydipsia.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Manage seizures and tetany with calcium gluconate IV and supportive care.
Causative:: Address hypocalcemia with long-term calcium and vitamin D supplementation.
Supportive:: Acute: Calcium gluconate 10% at 0.5–1.5 mL/kg IV slowly over 10–20 minutes with ECG monitoring.
Chronic: Oral calcium carbonate 40–90 mg/kg/day PO in divided doses, calcitriol 20–30 ng/kg/day PO. Taper and adjust doses based on ionized calcium levels.

Cataract(Opacity of the lens leading to impaired light transmission and reduced vision). In dogs, hereditary and diabetic cataracts are common, while in cats, cataracts are more often secondary to uveitis or trauma.
Symptoms:: Lens cloudiness, reduced vision, difficulty navigating, reluctance to move in dim light, bumping into objects. Advanced cases may lead to lens-induced uveitis or glaucoma.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Pirenoxine eye drops 0.005% (1–2 drops per affected eye BID) may help slow early progression; antioxidant supplementation with Vitamin E (10 IU/kg PO SID) and Vitamin C (10–20 mg/kg PO SID; caution in cats).
Causative:: No medical therapy reverses cataracts. Address underlying diseases (e.g., diabetes mellitus, uveitis, trauma) to prevent progression.
Supportive:: Surgical removal via phacoemulsification (performed by a veterinary ophthalmologist) for mature or vision-threatening cataracts. Requires controlled ocular inflammation and a functional retina. Regular ophthalmic rechecks and monitoring for complications (uveitis, glaucoma) are essential.

White Shaker Syndrome(Idiopathic inflammatory disorder of the central nervous system causing diffuse tremors without loss of consciousness). Commonly seen in small breed dogs, especially West Highland White Terriers, between 1–3 years of age.
Symptoms:: Rapid whole-body tremors, ataxia, anxiety, and hyperthermia. Tremors worsen with excitement or stress but stop during sleep.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Diazepam 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO or IV as needed to control tremors and reduce anxiety.
Causative:: Immunosuppressive corticosteroids (Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID initially, tapered over weeks to months) to address suspected immune-mediated CNS inflammation.
Supportive:: Environmental calming measures, minimizing stress, hydration, and monitoring body temperature. Regular neurological evaluations to track response and adjust treatment. Relapses may occur, requiring long-term therapy.

Visceral Smooth Muscle Spasm (e.g., Colic, Urolithiasis, Biliary Spasm) A condition characterized by sudden, involuntary contractions of visceral smooth muscle, often associated with gastrointestinal, urinary, or hepatobiliary disease.
Symptoms:: Abdominal pain and cramping, restlessness, vocalization, straining to urinate or defecate, tense abdomen on palpation, urinary discomfort, or biliary colic.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Drotaverine hydrochloride 2–4 mg/kg PO TID in dogs (use cautiously in cats under veterinary guidance); butylscopolamine as an alternative antispasmodic.
Causative:: Correction of the underlying disorder, such as removal of urinary or biliary calculi, treatment of gastrointestinal obstruction, or management of hepatobiliary inflammation.
Supportive:: IV fluid therapy (especially for urinary involvement), analgesics such as butorphanol 0.2–0.4 mg/kg IV/IM q6–8h or buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV/IM q6–8h, dietary modification, and monitoring for recurrence.

Colonic Obstruction (Secondary to Prostatic or Paraprostatic Cyst) (Mechanical compression of the colon by an enlarged prostate or paraprostatic cyst, leading to impaired motility and constipation).
Symptoms:: Chronic or recurrent constipation, tenesmus, abdominal straining, reduced appetite, and lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Stool softening with Docusate sodium 5–10 mg/kg PO BID, or as a 5% solution (5–10 mL per 100 mL warm water) rectally; Lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID to soften stool; Bisacodyl 0.05–0.1 mg/kg PO SID–BID as needed. Warm water or saline enemas (10–20 mL/kg) under veterinary supervision for severe constipation.
Causative:: Correction of the underlying prostatic enlargement or cyst (surgical removal, castration, or aspiration).
Supportive:: Hydration with IV fluids, pain management, nutritional support, and monitoring. Loperamide is contraindicated as it reduces motility and can worsen obstruction.

Colonic Obstruction (Intraluminal Foreign Body) (Physical blockage of the colon by an ingested foreign object, leading to impaired fecal passage and secondary complications).
Symptoms:: Persistent constipation, abdominal discomfort, anorexia, vomiting, tenesmus, abdominal distension, and straining without defecation.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Stool softening with Docusate sodium 5–10 mg/kg PO BID, or 5% solution (5–10 mL in 100 mL warm water) rectally; Lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID as an osmotic laxative; Bisacodyl 0.05–0.1 mg/kg PO SID–BID if no perforation is suspected.
Causative:: Definitive removal of the foreign body via endoscopy or surgery if obstruction persists or worsens.
Supportive:: IV fluids, analgesics (e.g., buprenorphine), and close monitoring to prevent complications such as megacolon or rupture. Loperamide is contraindicated in mechanical obstruction.

Colonic Obstruction (Extraluminal Tumor) (Compression of the colon by an external tumor mass leading to reduced fecal passage and secondary constipation).
Symptoms:: Persistent constipation, tenesmus, abdominal discomfort, decreased appetite, lethargy, and sometimes ribbon-like stool.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Stool softeners such as Docusate sodium 50–100 mg PO BID (dogs) or 10 mL of 5% solution in 100 mL warm water per rectum; Lactulose 0.5 mL/kg PO BID; Bisacodyl 0.12 mg/kg PO PRN (avoid chronic use). Loperamide is contraindicated as it worsens colonic motility in obstructive cases.
Causative:: Definitive management requires surgical excision of the tumor if operable. Imaging (ultrasound/CT) aids in assessing tumor origin, extent, and resectability. Oncology consultation is recommended for biopsy and staging.
Supportive:: Hydration (oral/IV fluids), analgesia, nutritional support (fiber-modified diet), and monitoring for recurrence or progression.

Colonic Obstruction (Congenital Stricture - Intraluminal) (Rare congenital narrowing of the colon causing persistent intraluminal obstruction and risk of megacolon if untreated).
Symptoms:: Chronic constipation, tenesmus, reduced or absent fecal output, abdominal discomfort, anorexia, or vomiting. Cats may progress to megacolon.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Stool softening with Docusate sodium 5–10 mg/kg PO BID or 5% solution (5–10 mL in 100 mL warm water) rectally; Lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO BID; Bisacodyl 0.05–0.1 mg/kg PO used cautiously if no perforation suspected. Loperamide is contraindicated.
Causative:: Surgical correction (coloplasty or resection and anastomosis) if medical management fails or the stricture is severe.
Supportive:: IV fluids, analgesics (e.g., buprenorphine), nutritional support, and close monitoring. Early intervention prevents chronic dilation, megacolon, or rupture.

Constipation due to Colonic Obstruction (Perineal Hernia, Rectal Canal Deviation) (Mechanical obstruction caused by extraluminal compression or rectal canal deviation, often due to perineal hernia or weakened pelvic diaphragm).
Symptoms:: Tenesmus, straining to defecate, firm or painful abdomen, decreased or absent fecal output, visible perineal swelling. Chronic cases may progress to megacolon and systemic illness.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Docusate sodium 50–100 mg PO BID, or 10 mL of 5% solution diluted in 100 mL warm water per rectum; Bisacodyl 0.12 mg/kg PO PRN (cautious use to avoid cramping). Loperamide 0.2 mg/kg PO BID may be used short-term only, but is generally avoided in obstructive constipation.
Causative:: Definitive resolution requires surgical correction of the perineal hernia or anatomical abnormality causing rectal canal deviation.
Supportive:: Warm water or saline enemas, stool softeners, high-fiber diets, hydration therapy (oral/IV fluids), and analgesia if needed. Long-term monitoring is essential to detect recurrence or progression to megacolon.

Feline Alimentary Lymphosarcoma (The most common gastrointestinal lymphoma in cats, often mistaken for IBD. Typically affects older FeLV-negative cats, but can also occur in FeLV-positive younger cats. May be localized or diffuse.)
Symptoms:: Chronic anorexia, persistent vomiting, diarrhea (sometimes malodorous or bloody), progressive weight loss, and lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Antiemetics (e.g., maropitant 1 mg/kg PO SID), appetite stimulants (e.g., mirtazapine 1.88–3.75 mg PO q48h), and nutritional support.
Causative:: CHOP-based chemotherapy protocol is gold standard: Cyclophosphamide 200–250 mg/m² IV q3 weeks, Doxorubicin 20–25 mg/m² IV q3 weeks, Vincristine 0.5–0.75 mg/m² IV weekly (max 0.5 mg in cats), Prednisolone 2 mg/kg PO SID × 7 days then taper. Single-agent protocols (e.g., chlorambucil + prednisolone) may be used for small-cell lymphoma. Cisplatin is contraindicated in cats due to fatal pulmonary edema risk.
Supportive:: IV/oral fluids, anti-nausea therapy, appetite support, and monitoring of body condition. Prognosis varies with subtype (low-grade vs high-grade) and FeLV status.

Canine Influenza (Dog Flu) (A highly contagious viral respiratory infection caused by canine influenza virus H3N8 or H3N2 strains. Can progress to bronchopneumonia in young, old, or immunocompromised dogs.)
Symptoms:: Acute cough (soft, moist, or dry), sneezing, high fever (up to 106°F), mucopurulent nasal/ocular discharge, dyspnea, lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Bromhexine 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID as a mucolytic/expectorant; NSAIDs such as meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID to reduce fever and inflammation.
Causative:: No specific antiviral therapy available. Management focuses on preventing/treating secondary bacterial infections with broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID, amoxicillin–clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID).
Supportive:: IV fluids for dehydration, oxygen therapy or hospitalization for pneumonia/hypoxia, strict isolation and hygiene to prevent spread. Vaccination available and recommended for at-risk dogs (shelters, kennels, shows).

Feline Perinephric Pseudocysts (Fluid accumulation around the kidneys, usually in older cats over 11 years, unilateral or bilateral, not true cysts.)
Symptoms: Abdominal enlargement, palpable abdominal mass, signs of chronic kidney disease (uremia), lethargy, anorexia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Ultrasound-guided drainage to relieve discomfort or abdominal distension.
Causative: Definitive surgical management includes laparoscopic or open fenestration/excision of the fibrous pseudocyst capsule. Nephrectomy only if the kidney is nonfunctional or neoplastic.
Supportive: Management of concurrent chronic kidney disease:

Subcutaneous fluids: 100–150 mL every 24–48 hours based on hydration
Phosphate binders (e.g., aluminum hydroxide 30–60 mg/kg/day PO divided)
Renal diets
Monitoring of serum creatinine, BUN, and electrolytes

Feline Immunodeficiency Virus infection (FIV) (Lentiviral infection causing chronic immunosuppression; similar to HIV in humans. Cats may remain asymptomatic for years.)
Symptoms: Fever, lymphadenopathy, neutropenia, gingivitis, stomatitis, chronic or intermittent diarrhea, anorexia, progressive weight loss.
Treatment Symptomatic: Management of secondary infections (antibiotics for bacterial infections such as doxycycline or amoxicillin-clavulanate), fluid therapy, nutritional support, dental care, oral hygiene.
Causative: There is no definitive cure. Antiviral/immune modulation options include:

Zidovudine (AZT) 5 mg/kg PO BID (monitor for anemia)
Human Interferon-α 30 IU PO SID on alternating weeks (immunomodulatory effect)

Supportive: Minimizing stress, regular monitoring of blood counts and secondary disease progression, supportive care for opportunistic infections.

Chagas Disease (Trypanosoma cruzi) (Protozoan infection caused by Trypanosoma cruzi; can be acute or chronic. Chronic phase may lead to cardiomyopathy, megacolon, or megaesophagus.)
Symptoms: Cardiac arrhythmias, regional or generalized lymphadenopathy, vomiting, diarrhea, progressive constipation, lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Management of arrhythmias (amiodarone 10–12 mg/kg PO BID, atenolol 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID), GI cramping (butylscopolamine 0.3–0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID), constipation (bisacodyl 0.12 mg/kg PO PRN), IV fluids, electrolyte correction, cardiac monitoring, heart failure management if present.
Causative: Antitrypanosomal therapy:

Benznidazole 5–7 mg/kg PO BID for 60 days (mainstay treatment)
Allopurinol 10 mg/kg PO BID (trypanostatic adjunct, mainly chronic cases)

Supportive: Environmental and preventive measures: vector control (Triatomine bugs), strict disinfection (10% bleach or 70% ethanol), screening of blood donors.

Idiopathic Facial Nerve ParalysisUnilateral or bilateral facial nerve dysfunction of unknown cause; may mimic other neuromuscular or inner ear disorders.
Symptoms:: Unilateral or bilateral facial drooping, lip paralysis, deviation of the nose away from the affected side, drooling (sialosis), accumulation of food on the paralyzed side of the mouth, reduced blink reflex, inability to close eyelids, risk of corneal ulceration.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Ophthalmic lubricants (artificial tears or hypromellose 1%-2%) 3-4× daily; Gabapentin 5-10 mg/kg PO BID–TID; maintain oral hygiene and assist with feeding if needed.
Causative / Immunomodulatory:: Prednisolone 0.5-1 mg/kg PO SID for 5-7 days (use cautiously if early, immune-mediated).
Supportive:: Neurologic follow-up to monitor progression; prevent corneal ulcers and manage chronic muscle contracture if present.

Pelvic Nerve DamageDamage to the pelvic nerve causing loss of parasympathetic innervation of the colon and rectum, often secondary to pelvic fractures, spinal trauma, or surgical injury.
Symptoms:: Chronic constipation, tenesmus, reduced or absent defecation reflex, distended colon on palpation. Straining without successful defecation; risk of megacolon if untreated.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Enemas (warm water, mineral oil, or lactulose-based) if defecation absent over 48 hours; manual evacuation under sedation/anesthesia in severe cases.
Causative:: Address underlying nerve injury if possible.
Supportive:: Docusate sodium 50-100 mg/dog PO BID or 10 mL of 5% solution per rectum; Lactulose 0.5-1 mL/kg PO BID–TID; Cisapride 0.2-0.5 mg/kg PO TID; dietary modification (high-fiber or low-residue diets); regular monitoring. Loperamide and bisacodyl generally avoided long-term.

Feline CoccidioidomycosisA systemic fungal infection caused by Coccidioides immitis or C. posadasii; less common in cats than dogs but can lead to disseminated disease affecting lungs, eyes, bones, skin, and lymph nodes. Skin lesions are more common in cats.
Symptoms:: Persistent fever, weight loss, draining skin lesions, anterior uveitis, corneal opacity, wheezing, hindlimb weakness or paralysis, enlarged lymph nodes.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Monitor hydration and electrolytes; provide supportive care for organ involvement.
Causative:: Itraconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID; Fluconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID; Voriconazole 4–6 mg/kg PO BID; Ketoconazole 10 mg/kg PO BID; Amphotericin B (liposomal) 0.5–1 mg/kg IV q48–72h; Nikkomycin Z 50 mg/kg PO SID (experimental); Terbinafine 20–30 mg/kg PO SID; Echinocandins reserved for salvage therapy.
Supportive:: Prednisolone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID short-term for severe ocular or CNS inflammation (use cautiously); Surgical excision for isolated granulomatous masses or abscesses; Monitor liver enzymes, clinical response, and follow-up imaging for 6–12 months or longer.

Canine CoccidioidomycosisA systemic fungal infection caused by Coccidioides immitis or C. posadasii, endemic in arid and semi-arid regions. Disseminated disease may affect bones, eyes, skin, lymph nodes, and CNS.
Symptoms:: Persistent fever, weight loss, enlarged lymph nodes, lameness, non-healing skin ulcers, draining abscesses, uveitis, acute blindness, neurologic signs such as seizures or behavioral changes.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care for organ involvement; monitor hydration and nutrition.
Causative:: Itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO BID for at least 6–12 months; Fluconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO BID; Voriconazole 4–6 mg/kg PO BID; Ketoconazole 8–10 mg/kg PO BID; Amphotericin B 0.25–0.5 mg/kg IV q48h (cumulative dose ≤12 mg/kg); Nikkomycin Z 50 mg/kg PO SID (experimental); Terbinafine 20–30 mg/kg PO SID; Caspofungin, micafungin, anidulafungin (salvage therapy).
Supportive:: Prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID for severe ocular or CNS inflammation (use cautiously, taper); Surgical excision for isolated granulomas or abscesses; Regular monitoring of liver enzymes and clinical response; Long-term therapy often needed, sometimes lifelong; Relapse is common if treatment is stopped prematurely.

Parasitic GastritisAn inflammatory gastric disorder caused by stomach-dwelling parasites such as Physaloptera spp. in dogs and Ollulanus tricuspis in cats. These parasites attach to the gastric mucosa, causing inflammation, erosion, and bleeding. Infection occurs via ingestion of intermediate hosts (beetles, crickets, cockroaches).
Symptoms:: Intermittent vomiting, melena, anorexia, anemia, weight loss, and worms in vomitus (especially in puppies).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Hydration, bland diet, follow-up fecal exams.
Causative:: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID × 5 days; Pyrantel pamoate 5–10 mg/kg PO, 2 doses 2–3 weeks apart; Ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg PO or SC, repeat in 2 weeks (avoid ivermectin-sensitive breeds); Emodepside/praziquantel topical for cats with Ollulanus.
Supportive:: Metoclopramide 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO/SC q8h; Domperidone 0.5–1.0 mg/kg PO q8–12h.

Helicobacter GastritisGastric inflammation associated with spiral-shaped bacteria (e.g., Helicobacter heilmannii, H. felis) in dogs and cats.
Symptoms:: Chronic vomiting is most common; others may include diarrhea, anorexia, pica, polyphagia; fever or bloody diarrhea are rare.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Control vomiting and gastrointestinal discomfort.
Causative:: Triple antimicrobial therapy (e.g., amoxicillin, metronidazole, and clarithromycin or tetracycline) with or without acid suppression for ~14–21 days. Acid suppression may not significantly improve outcomes but is often used.
Supportive:: Recurrence may occur—long-term monitoring may be needed; significant reduction in vomiting typically achieved in responsive cases.

Chronic Idiopathic Colitis / Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)A chronic immune-mediated inflammatory disorder of the colon in dogs and cats, most commonly lymphocytic-plasmacytic colitis. Less common forms include eosinophilic or histiocytic ulcerative colitis (notably in Boxers, French Bulldogs). Multifactorial etiology includes genetic, dietary, microbial, and immune factors.
Symptoms:: Prolonged large bowel diarrhea, tenesmus, hematochezia, flatulence, mucus in feces. Severe cases may show anorexia, vomiting, dehydration, and weight loss.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Diet trials (novel or hydrolyzed protein, 8–12 weeks). Probiotics and cobalamin supplementation if deficient.
Causative:: Empiric deworming with fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID × 5 days; Sulfasalazine 10–20 mg/kg PO TID × 3–4 weeks (caution in cats); Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID × 2–4 weeks; Tylosin 20 mg/kg PO BID in food; Prednisone (dogs) 1–2 mg/kg/day PO, taper after 2–4 weeks; Prednisolone (cats) 2–4 mg/kg/day PO initially; Azathioprine(Imuran tab:) 2 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only, refractory cases); Enrofloxacin 5–10 mg/kg PO SID (Boxers with histiocytic colitis).
Supportive:: Monitor response with fecal exams, clinical scoring, colonoscopy or biopsy if required.

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases Chronic gastrointestinal inflammatory disorders classified by predominant cellular infiltrate, including eosinophilic enterocolitis, lymphocytic-plasmacytic enteritis (LPE), granulomatous enteritis, and neutrophilic enteritis. Distribution and severity vary among individuals.
Symptoms:: Anorexia, weight loss, vomiting, diarrhea (small bowel, large bowel, or mixed), melena, hematochezia. Thickened bowel loops may be palpable in cats. Severe cases may present with ascites, coagulopathies, thromboembolic events, or protein-losing nephropathies.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Transition to a highly digestible, low-residue diet (e.g., rice, potatoes) or hydrolyzed protein diet.
Causative:: Empirical deworming: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 4 days. Pyrantel pamoate: Cats 10 mg/kg PO once; Dogs 5 mg/kg PO once.
Supportive:: Prednisolone—Dogs: 1 mg/kg PO BID for 3 weeks; Cats: 2 mg/kg PO BID or methylprednisolone 1 mg/kg PO BID. Tylosin may be added for antimicrobial-responsive diarrhea. For immunosuppressive therapy in refractory cases: Dogs—Azathioprine 1 mg/kg PO SID or Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO BID; Cats—Chlorambucil 1.5 mg/m² PO SID.

Feline Lungworm Infestation (Aelurostrongylus abstrusus)A nematode infecting terminal bronchioles and alveoli of cats, causing varying respiratory distress. Infection occurs via ingestion of snails, slugs, or paratenic hosts (birds, rodents). Kittens and immunocompromised cats are at higher risk.
Symptoms:: Cough, dyspnea, tachypnea, rapid shallow breathing, open-mouth breathing, and neck extension during inhalation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care with bronchodilators (theophylline 5–10 mg/kg PO BID) or corticosteroids in severe cases.
Causative:: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID × 10–14 days (preferred); Emodepside 0.14 ml/kg spot-on once; Moxidectin 0.1 mg/kg topical/SC single dose; Ivermectin 0.2–0.4 mg/kg SC/PO weekly × 2–3 weeks.
Supportive:: Thoracic radiographs and fecal Baermann test for monitoring.

Canine Lungworm Infestation (Capillariasis)A nematode (Eucoleus aerophilus) infecting the trachea and bronchi of dogs (occasionally cats). Heavy infestations may cause severe respiratory distress and secondary infections.
Symptoms:: Coughing, dyspnea, tachypnea, open-mouth breathing, head/neck extension, and rapid shallow respirations.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Environmental hygiene, prevention of reinfection via intermediate hosts (earthworms).
Causative:: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID × 10–14 days; Ivermectin 0.2–0.4 mg/kg PO/SC once (avoid sensitive breeds); Levamisole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID × 3 days (refractory cases).
Supportive:: Avoid albendazole due to bone marrow suppression risk.

Dermatomyositis (Dogs)An inherited, immune-mediated inflammatory disease of skin, muscles, and blood vessels, common in Collies and Shetland Sheepdogs under 6 months. Severity ranges from mild cutaneous signs to severe systemic muscular involvement.
Symptoms:: Alopecia, erythema, ulcers, scaling (muzzle, lips, periocular areas, pinnae, tail tip, distal limbs). Dysphagia, regurgitation, stiff gait, reluctance to walk, and elevated CK.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Sun avoidance, topical sunscreens, supportive care.
Causative:: Pentoxifylline 20–25 mg/kg PO BID; Prednisone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID, taper based on response.
Supportive:: Vitamin E 400–800 IU PO BID–TID; Topical tacrolimus for resistant lesions; Omega-3 fatty acids, physical therapy for chronic cases.

Endocrine and Nutritional Causes of Poor Hair CoatPoor hair coat due to hormonal imbalance, nutritional deficiencies, or chronic ectoparasitism. Common causes: hypothyroidism in dogs, hyperthyroidism in cats, vitamin A/E/zinc deficiency.
Symptoms:: Dull coat, thinning hair, altered color/texture, alopecia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Balanced diet, parasite control (isoxazolines for ectoparasites, fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO daily × 3 days for helminths).
Causative:: Levothyroxine 0.02 mg/kg PO BID (dogs) or 0.1 mg/m² PO BID (cats if hypothyroid); vitamin/mineral supplementation (A, E, biotin, zinc).
Supportive:: Re-evaluate thyroid levels 4–6 weeks after therapy to adjust dosage.

Feline ProtothecosisA rare, opportunistic algal infection caused by Prototheca spp., primarily Prototheca wickerhamii and Prototheca zopfii. These achlorophyllic algae invade through wounds or mucosal surfaces and can disseminate in immunocompromised animals.
Symptoms:: Firm, nonulcerated cutaneous or subcutaneous nodules (forehead, distal limbs, base of the tail, nose, pinnae, or genital regions) with frequent lymphadenopathy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Surgical excision for solitary lesions.
Causative:: Posaconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID (preferred); Amphotericin B 0.25 mg/kg IV q24–48h (cumulative ≤12 mg/kg); Voriconazole 4–6 mg/kg PO BID; Itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive:: Regular monitoring of liver/kidney function; long-term antifungal therapy; prognosis guarded.

Canine ProtothecosisCaused by Prototheca zopfii, often fatal and disseminated in immunocompromised dogs. Commonly affects colon, skin, CNS, and lymph nodes.
Symptoms:: Severe large bowel diarrhea with mucus/hematochezia, weight loss, vomiting, skin lesions, nasal discharge, neurologic signs (ataxia, seizures, blindness, deafness).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Fluids; Nutritional support; Neurologic/dermatologic management.
Causative:: Posaconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID; Voriconazole 6 mg/kg PO BID; Amphotericin B deoxycholate 0.25–0.5 mg/kg IV q48h (slow, cumulative toxicity); Nystatin 50,000–150,000 IU PO q8h (limited systemic use).
Supportive:: Long-term antifungal therapy; guarded to poor prognosis in disseminated cases.

Pulmonary ThromboembolismPulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) is caused by obstruction of the pulmonary arterial system by thrombi, often secondary to protein-losing nephropathy, hyperadrenocorticism, neoplasia, or sepsis.
Symptoms:: Sudden respiratory distress, tachypnea, coughing, hemoptysis, jugular vein distension, signs of right-sided heart failure, ascites, pleural effusion, crackles or increased bronchial sounds (sometimes normal lung sounds).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supplemental oxygen (nasal cannula, mask, or oxygen cage).
Causative:: Unfractionated heparin 75–100 U/kg IV bolus then 50–100 U/kg SC q6–8h; Enoxaparin 0.8–1 mg/kg SC q12h; Warfarin 0.05–0.1 mg/kg PO SID (INR 2–3); Clopidogrel 1–2 mg/kg PO SID or Aspirin 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive:: Coagulation monitoring (PT, aPTT, INR); manage underlying disease; variable prognosis depending on embolism severity.

Drug AllergyAn immune-mediated hypersensitivity reaction (Type I, II, or III). Severity ranges from mild skin reactions to life-threatening systemic disease.
Symptoms:: Onset ≥5 days after drug exposure. Vasculitis, pruritus, erythema, urticaria, allergic dermatitis, ataxia, hemolytic anemia signs (pale mucous membranes, jaundice).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Discontinue suspected drug; Diphenhydramine 2–4 mg/kg PO/IM q8–12h.
Causative:: Epinephrine 0.01 mg/kg IM/SC in anaphylaxis (max 0.3 mg/dose cats); Prednisone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO; Dexamethasone sodium phosphate 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV.
Supportive:: IV crystalloids for shock; Blood transfusion if hemolysis; Immunosuppressives (Mycophenolate 10 mg/kg PO BID; Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO BID). Future drug avoidance mandatory.

SialadenitisSialadenitis is inflammation of the salivary glands, caused by infection (Staphylococcus, Streptococcus), trauma, neoplasia, or autoimmune disease.
Symptoms:: Painful swollen salivary glands, dysphagia, drooling, anorexia, fever, gagging, vomiting, pain opening the mouth.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Analgesics (Gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO BID); Hydration; Assisted feeding.
Causative:: If mucocele/abscess/fistula → surgical removal (mandibular/sublingual gland excision). Antibiotics: Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–20 mg/kg PO BID; Cephalexin 20–30 mg/kg PO BID; Clindamycin 10–12 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive:: Prednisone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID (for immune-mediated causes, taper over 2–4 weeks).

Bacterial Food PoisoningFood poisoning caused by Salmonella, Clostridium, E. coli, or Campylobacter. Often self-limiting but severe in young or immunocompromised animals.
Symptoms:: Acute diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dehydration, lethargy, anorexia, fever.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: IV fluids if dehydration; Butylscopolamine 0.2–0.3 mg/kg IM/SC BID for GI spasms.
Causative:: If severe/febrile cases → Cefotaxime 30–40 mg/kg IV/IM BID; Ceftiofur 2.2 mg/kg SC SID × 5–7 days; Cefuroxime 10–15 mg/kg IV BID.
Supportive:: Probiotics (Enterococcus faecium, Saccharomyces boulardii); Bland digestible diet; Avoid antidiarrheals if toxin-producing bacteria suspected.

Canine TuberculosisCaused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M. bovis, and M. avium. Rare but zoonotic with high treatment difficulty.
Symptoms:: Persistent fever, weight loss, anorexia, harsh nonproductive cough, dysphagia, hypersalivation, systemic signs from dissemination.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care, nutritional support, oxygen therapy if respiratory compromise.
Causative:: Isoniazid 10 mg/kg PO SID; Rifampin 10–15 mg/kg PO SID; Ethambutol 15–25 mg/kg PO SID (≥6–12 months). Streptomycin 15 mg/kg IM q48h in severe cases.
Supportive:: Strict isolation; Monitor drug toxicity; Guarded to poor prognosis due to zoonotic risk and resistance.

Tapeworm Infection Tapeworm infection in dogs and cats is primarily caused by Dipylidium caninum and other cestodes. It is often associated with flea infestations, which serve as intermediate hosts.
Symptoms: Anemia, weight loss, diarrhea, visible tapeworm segments (proglottids) around the anus, scooting due to perianal irritation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Relief of perianal irritation; fecal monitoring.
Causative: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID × 3 days (puppies/kittens under 6 months); Fenbendazole 100 mg/kg PO single dose (older animals); Praziquantel 5 mg/kg PO/IM single dose (preferred); Niclosamide 110 mg/kg PO; Epsiprantel 5 mg/kg PO once (dogs), 2.5 mg/kg PO once (cats).
Supportive: Strict flea control to prevent reinfection; follow-up fecal exams to confirm clearance.

Feline Enteric Coronavirus (FEC) Infection A common viral infection in cats that primarily affects the intestinal tract and is usually self-limiting. It is distinct from the more severe feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), which arises from mutations of FEC.
Symptoms: Most cats subclinical. Kittens may show mild diarrhea, intermittent fever, lethargy, and anorexia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Fluid therapy for dehydration; nutritional support; antispasmodics (Butylscopolamine 0.1 ml/kg IV/IM BID or 0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID).
Causative: No specific antiviral therapy available.
Supportive: Cefuroxime 20–30 mg/kg PO BID if secondary bacterial infection suspected; monitor for progression to FIP.

Canine Coronavirus Infection A highly contagious viral infection transmitted via the fecal-oral route. It is often self-limiting but can worsen disease when co-infections (e.g., CPV) are present.
Symptoms: Acute hemorrhagic diarrhea (especially in puppies), vomiting, lethargy, anorexia, dehydration, abdominal discomfort.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV/SC balanced crystalloid fluids (Lactated Ringer’s) for dehydration/electrolyte imbalance; antiemetics (Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID); bland digestible diet once vomiting subsides.
Causative: No direct antiviral therapy.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum antibiotics to prevent secondary bacterial infections (Amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO/IV q12h × 7 days); strict hygiene and isolation; vaccination reduces severity but not infection.

Granulomatous Meningoencephalomyelitis (GME) An immune-mediated inflammatory disease of the CNS, most often in young to middle-aged small-breed dogs. It involves granulomatous infiltration of brain, spinal cord, and meninges.
Symptoms: Spastic tetraparesis, vestibular ataxia, head tilt, abnormal nystagmus, seizures, circling, vision loss, anisocoria, PLR deficits, fever, depression.
Treatment Symptomatic: Seizure control with anticonvulsants; supportive nursing care.
Causative: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID × 4 weeks, taper to 0.5 mg/kg PO SID; Cytosine arabinoside 50 mg/m² SC BID × 2 days, repeat q3w; Cyclosporine 5–7 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive: Neurologic monitoring; lifelong immunosuppressive management.

Immune-Mediated Thrombocytopenia (IMT) An immune-mediated disorder in which autoantibodies target platelets and/or megakaryocytes, causing thrombocytopenia. Common in dogs, rare in cats.
Symptoms: Often asymptomatic if mild. Petechiae, ecchymoses, epistaxis, hematuria, melena, mucosal bleeding. Secondary IMT: signs of underlying disease (infection, neoplasia, drugs).
Treatment Symptomatic: Transfusions (packed RBCs if severe anemia; platelet transfusions rarely effective but may help in life-threatening hemorrhage).
Causative: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID × 2–3 weeks, taper as response allows; Vincristine 0.02 mg/kg IV once; Danazol 5 mg/kg PO BID; Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID × 7–10 days then 0.5 mg/kg PO EOD (not for cats); Cyclophosphamide 50 mg/m² PO SID × 4 days.
Supportive: Famotidine 0.5 mg/kg PO SID to protect GI tract from steroids; long-term immunosuppressive monitoring.

Salmonellosis A zoonotic bacterial disease caused by various Salmonella species. It can present as acute gastroenteritis or progress to septicemia, particularly in immunocompromised or young animals. Subclinical carriers are also common.
Symptoms: Fever, vomiting, diarrhea (may be bloody), abdominal pain, dehydration, anorexia, weight loss, pale mucous membranes, epistaxis, coughing, dyspnea, hyperexcitability, ataxia, posterior paresis, blindness, seizures.
Treatment Symptomatic: Parenteral isotonic fluids (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s) to correct dehydration and electrolyte imbalances; antiemetics; nutritional support; hospitalization in severe cases.
Causative: Antibiotics only in systemic illness/sepsis: Trimethoprim-sulfonamide 15–30 mg/kg PO/IV q12h; Cefotaxime 30 mg/kg IV/IM/SC BID; Cefixime 12.5 mg/kg PO BID × 7–14 days (oral option).
Supportive: Close monitoring, isolation, and strict zoonotic precautions when handling affected animals.

Idiopathic Tremor Syndrome Also known as “Little White Shaker Syndrome,” this is a non-suppurative meningoencephalitis of unknown (likely immune-mediated) cause. It primarily affects small white breeds (e.g., West Highland White Terriers, Maltese) and typically appears in young adult dogs.
Symptoms: Generalized whole-body tremors (worse with excitement/exercise, resolving during sleep), spontaneous nystagmus, poor/absent oculocephalic reflexes, cerebellar/vestibular ataxia, head tilt, paresis (variable), occasional seizures.
Treatment Symptomatic: Diazepam 0.25 mg/kg PO BID or Propranolol 1 mg/kg PO BID may reduce tremors.
Causative: Immunosuppressive corticosteroids: Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO SID × 4 weeks, taper to 0.5 mg/kg PO SID × 2 weeks, then q72h × 4 weeks. In refractory cases, Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID, then reduced to every other day.
Supportive: Monitoring for relapses; long-term management with immunosuppressants if severe or recurrent.

Otitis Externa An inflammatory condition of the external ear canal, commonly caused by allergies, parasites (e.g., Otodectes cynotis), foreign bodies, or bacterial/fungal infections. Chronic or untreated cases may extend to the middle or inner ear, leading to neurologic complications.
Symptoms:: Ear discharge, head shaking, scratching/pawing at the ear, pain on manipulation, erythema, odor, and in chronic cases thickening of the canal or neurologic signs (facial nerve paralysis, drooling, deafness).
Treatment Symptomatic:: Gentle ear cleaning with ceruminolytic solutions, drying before topical therapy, and ear massage (15–30 seconds post-instillation) to enhance drug penetration.
Causative:: Topical antimicrobials and anti-inflammatories chosen based on cytology:
- Fusidic acid 1%: 2–5 drops/ear BID (effective for gram-positive cocci).
- Framycetin (5 mg/g) + Nystatin + Dexamethasone: 2–5 drops/ear BID (broad antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory).
- Culture and sensitivity-guided systemic antibiotics for otitis media (e.g., cephalexin 20–30 mg/kg PO BID).
Supportive:: Prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days to reduce inflammation and edema. Identify and manage underlying causes (allergies, parasites, endocrine disease). Re-examine after 7–14 days to monitor response and prevent recurrence.
Targeted therapy based on cytology and addressing predisposing factors are essential to prevent chronic or recurrent otitis externa. Avoid ototoxic agents in cases of ruptured tympanic membranes.

Otitis Media An inflammation or infection of the middle ear, commonly arising from chronic or untreated otitis externa through a ruptured tympanic membrane or via the auditory tube. Often caused by bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus spp., Pseudomonas spp.), yeasts, or rarely mites. Chronic inflammation can lead to bony changes or polyp formation.
Symptoms:: Head tilt, ataxia, nystagmus, facial paralysis, otic pruritus, pain on jaw movement, and possible deafness. Neurologic deficits often occur in advanced disease.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Analgesics and anti-inflammatory medications to control pain and neurologic symptoms; ear flushing with ceruminolytics (e.g., dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate, left in place for 5–10 minutes before flushing).
Causative:: Culture-guided systemic antibiotics (empirical options: Clindamycin 5.5 mg/kg PO BID for anaerobes; Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO SID for Gram-negatives). Topical antibiotics (Framycetin 5 mg/g or Fusidic acid 2–10 drops/ear BID × 7–14 days) if tympanic membrane is ruptured. Myringotomy for diagnostic aspiration and drainage when the tympanic membrane is intact.
Supportive:: Imaging (radiographs, CT, MRI) for assessment of tympanic bullae involvement; recheck otoscopy under anesthesia for monitoring. Nutritional support and general care during recovery.
Surgical:: Bulla osteotomy in refractory, chronic cases or with polyp formation.
Failure to resolve otitis media can lead to permanent neurologic deficits. Close follow-up with repeat cytology and otoscopy is critical to ensure full resolution.

Otitis Interna An inflammatory disease of the inner ear structures, commonly resulting from progression of otitis media. Vestibular dysfunction arises due to disruption of cranial nerve VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve), and the condition may lead to permanent neurologic deficits if untreated.
Symptoms: Head tilt, symmetrical ataxia, abnormal head posture, horizontal or rotary nystagmus, gait changes.
Treatment Symptomatic: Meclizine 0.5 mg/kg PO BID for vestibular signs and motion sickness; Acepromazine 0.01–0.05 mg/kg PO SID as antiemetic/sedative; quiet, dark environment to reduce vestibular stimulation.
Causative: Systemic antibiotics (based on culture & sensitivity). Empirical options: Amoxicillin-Clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID or Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO SID for 4–6 weeks. Surgical drainage/debridement (ventral bulla osteotomy) for chronic or refractory cases.
Supportive: Topical antibiotics (Framycetin or Fusidic acid 2–10 drops/ear BID) for concurrent otitis externa; supportive nursing care during recovery.

Canine Trichuriasis Canine trichuriasis is caused by infection with Trichuris vulpis, a whipworm that primarily affects the cecum and colon. Heavy infestations can involve the ileum, leading to more extensive gastrointestinal signs. Systemic illness may occur in advanced cases due to chronic fluid and electrolyte loss.
Symptoms: Large bowel diarrhea with mucus and hematochezia, weight loss, weakness, anorexia, polydipsia, abdominal discomfort, dehydration, bradycardia, hypothermia (in severe cases).
Treatment Symptomatic: Fluid therapy for dehydration and electrolyte imbalance; nutritional support; anti-inflammatory therapy for colitis.
Causative: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID × 3 days. Repeat at 3 weeks and 3 months. Alternatives: Milbemycin oxime 0.5 mg/kg PO once, Febantel 10 mg/kg PO SID × 3 days.
Supportive: Environmental hygiene, fecal rechecks to prevent reinfection, long-term monitoring of gastrointestinal function.

Erythropoietin (EPO) Abnormalities A glycoprotein hormone produced by renal peritubular interstitial cells. It stimulates erythropoiesis in the bone marrow. Abnormal levels of EPO, whether deficient (as in chronic kidney disease) or excessive (e.g., secondary to renal tumors), can result in either anemia or erythrocytosis.
Symptoms: Progressive anemia, weakness, pallor, collapse, exercise intolerance, hyperemia of mucous membranes/sclera/skin, hyperviscosity signs in erythrocytosis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor hematocrit; treat collapse and weakness supportively; oxygen therapy if severe anemia present.
Causative: For EPO deficiency → recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) or darbepoetin alfa 1–2 µg/kg SC once weekly + oral iron (ferrous sulfate 5–10 mg/kg/day PO).
For EPO excess (erythrocytosis) → therapeutic phlebotomy: withdraw 10–20 mL/kg blood via jugular catheter, replace with equal isotonic crystalloid (e.g., lactated Ringer’s). Repeat as needed.
Renal tumor/lymphoma → nephrectomy (curative if unilateral) or chemotherapy (CHOP protocol) if bilateral.
Supportive: Parenteral fluids during phlebotomy, nutritional support, regular CBC monitoring for therapy adjustment.

Intestinal Intussusception Intussusception is the telescoping of one segment of intestine into another, leading to obstruction and possible ischemia. Common in young animals, often secondary to GI irritation (enteritis, parasites).
Symptoms: Acute vomiting, profuse diarrhea with blood/mucus, abdominal pain, lethargy, anorexia, palpable abdominal mass.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesia: Methadone 0.2–0.5 mg/kg IV q4–6h; Antiemetics: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID postoperatively; Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID for colic relief (not curative).
Causative: Surgical reduction or resection with end-to-end anastomosis (definitive).
Supportive: IV fluids (Lactated Ringer’s 60–90 mL/kg/hr until perfusion improves), broad-spectrum antibiotics (Cefuroxime 20–30 mg/kg IV q8h or Cefazolin 22 mg/kg IV q8h perioperatively), nutritional support, close postoperative monitoring for recurrence.

Chronic Intussusception A condition where a segment of the intestine telescopes into an adjacent segment, often intermittently, leading to partial obstruction, vascular compromise, and chronic gastrointestinal signs. It may occur secondary to enteritis, parasites, or tumors and is more common in young animals.
Symptoms: Recurrent or chronic diarrhea, abdominal pain, intermittent vomiting, weight loss, palpable abdominal mass.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesia with Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV/IM q6–8h or Methadone 0.2 mg/kg IM q6–8h. Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID for short-term intestinal spasm relief preoperatively.
Causative: Surgical correction is definitive — enteroplication or resection and anastomosis if necrosis or irreversible intestinal damage is present.
Supportive: Immediate stabilization with IV balanced crystalloids (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s) for dehydration/electrolyte imbalance; postoperative broad-spectrum antibiotics (Cefazolin 22 mg/kg IV TID or Amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID); careful monitoring and nutritional support.
Prognosis is favorable with early surgical intervention; delay may result in necrosis, sepsis, or death.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) A functional gastrointestinal disorder in dogs and cats, often diagnosed after excluding infectious, inflammatory, or parasitic causes. Often linked to stress, motility disturbances, or dietary sensitivities.
Symptoms: Intermittent large-bowel diarrhea with mucus and fresh blood, otherwise healthy animals, no systemic illness, soft feces on rectal exam.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antispasmodic therapy (Butylscopolamine 0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID); short-term antidiarrheal (Diphenoxylate-atropine 0.1–0.2 mg/kg PO BID–TID).
Causative/Adjunct: Address stress-related cases with antianxiety therapy (Clidinium-Chlordiazepoxide 0.1–0.25 mg/kg PO BID or Fluoxetine 1–2 mg/kg PO SID).
Supportive: Dietary management with soluble fiber (psyllium 1–5 g/day): small dogs/cats 1/4–1/2 tsp BID; medium/large dogs 1–3 tbsp/day PO. Antibiotics (Cefuroxime 22–30 mg/kg PO BID × 7 days) only if bacterial colitis is confirmed. Stress reduction and behavior modification.
Prognosis is good with proper diet, stress management, and supportive therapy. Most cases do not require lifelong medication.

Fiber-Responsive Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) A functional large-bowel disorder in dogs and cats, often diagnosed after ruling out infectious, inflammatory, or parasitic causes.
Symptoms: Chronic intermittent large-bowel diarrhea with mucus, tenesmus, urgency, normal appetite and weight, occasional cramping or colonic spasms.
Treatment Symptomatic: Butylscopolamine 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID to relieve colonic spasms.
Causative: High-fiber diet (e.g., psyllium husk 1 tsp per 10 kg body weight BID mixed with food) or commercial gastrointestinal/fiber-rich diet. Avoid unnecessary antibiotics unless bacterial colitis is confirmed.
Supportive: Stress reduction, behavioral modification, and adjunctive probiotics (Enterococcus faecium or Saccharomyces boulardii) to regulate gut microbiota.
Prognosis is good with dietary and supportive therapy; long-term medication is usually not required if diet is managed appropriately.

Toxin Ingestion(Poisoning)Symptoms: Acute diarrhea and neurological signs such as stupor or coma are the most prominent symptoms. Other signs may include vomiting, hypersalivation, abdominal pain, tremors, seizures, or collapse. Toxin ingestion in dogs and cats can result from exposure to chemicals, heavy metals, human medications, rodenticides, spoiled foods, garbage, or toxic plants. Prompt recognition and intervention are critical to prevent systemic damage.
Treatment If ingestion occurred within 1–2 hours and the patient is alert, emesis may be induced (Apomorphine 0.03 mg/kg IV in dogs or xylazine 0.44 mg/kg IM in cats). Administer activated charcoal (1–4 g/kg PO once; may be repeated every 6–8 hours if enterohepatic recirculation is suspected). Initiate IV fluid therapy (Lactated Ringer’s Solution or Normosol-R at 60–90 mL/kg/day, adjusted based on hydration status and shock). For neurological symptoms, Diazepam 0.25–0.5 mg/kg IV may be used to control seizures.
Use antidotes if a specific toxin is known:
Rodenticides: Vitamin K1 at 2.5–5 mg/kg PO BID for 3–4 weeks.
Organophosphates: Atropine 0.04 mg/kg IV every 3–4 hours; 2-PAM at 20 mg/kg IM or slow IV every 8 hours.
Heavy metal toxicity (e.g., lead): CaEDTA 66 mg/kg SC BID for 3–5 days.
Supportive care includes: Butylscopolamine (Spanil) at 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID to relieve intestinal spasms. Antibiotic therapy, such as Cefuroxime 22–30 mg/kg PO BID, may be used if secondary bacterial infection is suspected. Prognosis depends on the type and amount of toxin, time to treatment, and systemic involvement. Early intervention improves outcomes significantly.

Carbamate Insecticide PoisoningA toxic condition caused by accidental exposure to carbamate insecticides affecting the cholinergic system.
Symptoms:: Salivation, lacrimation, bronchial secretions, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle tremors, respiratory paralysis, CNS depression, seizures, miosis, and hyperactivity.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Control seizures and muscle tremors with diazepam if needed; provide oxygen and respiratory support.
Causative:: Atropine 0.2 mg/kg IM for secretions and bronchoconstriction; Pralidoxime chloride 20 mg/kg IM or SC BID for tremors and weakness.
Supportive:: Diphenhydramine 4 mg/kg IM or PO BID for muscle weakness; IV fluids, monitoring of respiratory function, and nursing care until toxin is cleared.

Leptospirosis in Dogs A serious zoonotic bacterial infection caused by Leptospira spp., especially Leptospira kirschneri serovar grippotyphosa. It primarily affects the kidneys and/or liver and is of particular importance in dogs exposed to wildlife or stagnant water.
Symptoms: Acute renal pain, renomegaly, oliguria or anuria (in acute renal failure), or polyuria/polydipsia (in subacute or chronic cases). Some dogs may remain subclinical but shed the organism for prolonged periods.
Treatment Symptomatic: Aggressive IV fluid therapy to manage renal failure and maintain perfusion (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s or Plasmalyte-A at 60–90 mL/kg/day, adjusted to hydration status and urine output). Monitor renal parameters, electrolytes, and urine output daily.
Causative: For acute leptospiremia: Ampicillin 22 mg/kg IV q6–8h or Penicillin G sodium 25,000–40,000 IU/kg IV q6h for 10–14 days.
Supportive/Carrier Elimination: Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO or IV BID for 14 days to eliminate the carrier state and prevent shedding. If GI intolerance occurs, Azithromycin 20 mg/kg PO SID for 7 days may be substituted.
Early diagnosis and appropriate antibiotic therapy significantly improve prognosis. Strict hygiene and handling precautions are essential due to zoonotic risk.

Trypanosomiasis in Cats A rare but potentially fatal protozoan infection caused by Trypanosoma evansi, transmitted by biting flies. Cats are less commonly affected than dogs but may develop severe systemic signs in endemic areas.
Symptoms:: Lethargy, fever, anemia, weight loss, enlarged lymph nodes, pale mucous membranes, jaundice, and neurological signs in advanced stages.
Treatment Causative:: Diminazene aceturate 3.5–7 mg/kg IM once. Repeat in 7–10 days if clinical signs persist. Use with caution due to narrow safety margin in cats.
Supportive:: Fluid therapy, blood transfusions (if anemic), hepatoprotective agents, and nutritional support. Monitor for renal and hepatic toxicity during therapy.
Note: Avoid Quinapyramine in cats due to high toxicity. Close post-treatment monitoring and vector control are essential to prevent relapse.

Trypanosomiasis in Dogs (Surra of Dog) A protozoan parasitic disease caused by Trypanosoma evansi, transmitted by biting flies. It affects dogs systemically and may involve the heart. The disease manifests in acute, subacute, or chronic forms, particularly in endemic regions.
Symptoms:: Progressive anemia, corneal opacity, intermittent fever, rapid emaciation, peripheral edema, lymphadenopathy, abdominal distension, diarrhea, supraventricular arrhythmias, pale mucous membranes, and tachycardia.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Supportive care including IV fluids, antiarrhythmic therapy for cardiac signs, nutritional support, and blood transfusion if anemic.
Causative:: Diminazene aceturate 3.5–7 mg/kg IM once; repeat in 7–10 days if needed. In refractory cases, use Pentamidine isethionate 4 mg/kg IM q48h for 3 doses. For chronic or resistant cases, Quinapyramine sulfate-chloride 5–7.5 mg/kg IM (therapeutic and prophylactic, not for cats).
Supportive:: Suramin 100 mg/kg IV slowly (single dose, divided over 2–3 days if hypersensitivity risk). Add Allopurinol 10 mg/kg PO BID for long-term control. Alternative agents include Nifurtimox 5 mg/kg PO BID or Benznidazole 6.5 mg/kg PO BID × 60 days with careful toxicity monitoring. Implement strict vector control and repeat treatments as necessary.

Perianal Fistula Perianal fistulas are chronic, painful, progressive inflammatory conditions affecting the perianal region. Most commonly seen in German Shepherds and Irish Setters, the condition is believed to have an immune-mediated component with secondary bacterial involvement.
Symptoms: Insidious onset of excessive licking of the perianal region, one or more draining tracts with thick malodorous discharge, perianal bleeding, dyschezia, tenesmus, constipation, and marked pain upon raising the tail or rectal palpation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 10 days if anaerobic infection is suspected. Cephalexin 20 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days if secondary bacterial infection is present. Strict perianal hygiene and dietary fiber supplementation for stool softening.
Causative (Immunosuppressive): Cyclosporine 5–10 mg/kg PO BID for 6–8 weeks (often combined with Ketoconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID to reduce dose and cost). Prednisone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID for 2–4 weeks, tapered over 4–6 weeks if needed. Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 2–3 weeks (dogs only).
Supportive: Analgesia as needed, dietary adjustments (hypoallergenic diet if food allergy suspected).
Definitive: Surgical intervention such as anal sacculectomy or fistulectomy in refractory/recurrent cases.
Combination immunosuppressive therapy plus hygiene often improves outcomes. Prognosis is variable and guarded in recurrent or severe cases.

Peritonitis Peritonitis is inflammation of the serous membranes lining the abdominal cavity, and it may be infectious or non-infectious. It can arise as primary (rare) or more commonly secondary to trauma, ruptured viscera, pancreatitis, neoplasia, or postoperative complications.
Symptoms: Fever, depression, anorexia, vomiting, acute abdominal pain, abdominal distension, tachypnea, dyspnea, and signs of acute diarrhea.
Treatment Symptomatic: Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID may provide temporary visceral pain relief. Analgesics and antiemetics as supportive measures.
Causative (Antimicrobial): Ceftiofur 2.2 mg/kg SC or IV SID for broad-spectrum coverage. Cefuroxime 20–30 mg/kg IV BID as an alternative. Add Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg IV or PO BID for anaerobic coverage.
Supportive: Aggressive fluid resuscitation with isotonic crystalloids (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s) to treat hypovolemia/shock. Correct electrolyte and acid-base imbalances. Nutritional support.
Definitive: If septic peritonitis is confirmed, exploratory laparotomy with abdominal lavage and drain placement.
Prognosis depends on underlying cause and rapid intervention. Early surgery plus antimicrobial therapy improves survival rates.

Exfoliative Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (ECLE)A hereditary, immune-mediated exfoliative dermatopathy, most commonly reported in German Shorthaired Pointers. Typically presents at a young age and progresses chronically.
Symptoms: Widespread scaling, alopecia, follicular casting, crusting, ulcerative lesions over muzzle, pinnae, and dorsal trunk. Pain, pruritus, pyrexia, hyperkeratosis, and secondary bacterial dermatitis may occur.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Topical antiseborrheic shampoos 2–3 times weekly; essential fatty acid supplementation (Omega-3 & Omega-6, 40–60 mg/kg/day PO).
Causative: Immunomodulatory therapy with Tetracycline 20–25 mg/kg PO TID + Niacinamide 250–500 mg/dog PO TID; Prednisone 1–2.2 mg/kg PO SID; Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only); Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive: Regular dermatologic follow-up, monitoring for secondary infections, and genetic counseling for breeding animals.

Discoid Lupus Erythematosus (DLE)An autoimmune, localized cutaneous form of lupus primarily affecting the facial region of dogs, exacerbated by UV exposure.
Symptoms:: Erosion and ulceration of the skin, leukoderma and depigmentation at the junction of haired skin and nasal planum, involvement of lips, oral cavity, periocular area, and genitalia.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Strict sun avoidance; apply canine-safe sunblock daily. Topical corticosteroids (Betamethasone, Fluocinolone, Triamcinolone) applied once or twice daily; Hydrocortisone 1% cream for mild lesions.
Causative: Topical calcineurin inhibitors: Cyclosporine 0.2% or Tacrolimus 0.1% ointment BID. Systemic Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO SID, taper as clinical signs improve. Tetracycline 22 mg/kg PO TID + Niacinamide 250–500 mg/dog PO TID as immunomodulatory therapy.
Supportive: Vitamin E 400–800 IU/day PO; Omega-3 fatty acids 40–60 mg/kg/day PO. Regular dermatologic monitoring and long-term sun protection recommended.

Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency (EPI) EPI in cats results from destruction or atrophy of pancreatic acinar cells, leading to insufficient secretion of digestive enzymes. Chronic pancreatitis is a common underlying cause. Maldigestion and malabsorption follow, leading to poor body condition and vitamin deficiencies.
Symptoms:: Oily staining of the perineum due to steatorrhea, chronic weight loss , variable appetite (often normal or increased) , progressive emaciation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Hydration and nutritional support as needed.
Causative:: Enzyme replacement therapy: Powdered pancreatic enzyme (Pancrelipase) 1/2 tsp per 5 kg body weight per meal, mixed with food immediately before feeding. Avoid heat inactivation.
Supportive:: Cobalamin (Vitamin B12) 250 µg SC weekly for 6 weeks, then every 14 days for 6 weeks, then every 28 days as needed; oral cobalamin (250 µg/day) for maintenance. Dietary management: highly digestible, moderate-fat, high-protein feline diet; avoid high-fiber foods. Antibiotic therapy: Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days if small intestinal bacterial overgrowth is suspected. Prognosis is generally favorable with consistent enzyme supplementation and dietary management, although lifelong treatment is usually necessary.

Nonerosive ArthritisPeriarticular inflammation without radiographic or histologic joint destruction. Immune-mediated causes include idiopathic immune-mediated polyarthritis (IMPA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), polyarthritis associated with chronic disease, and drug-induced polyarthritis.
Symptoms:: Lameness affecting one or more limbs (often shifting between limbs). The distal limb joints such as the carpus, tarsus, and interphalangeal joints are most commonly involved, while monoarticular disease often affects the elbow. Clinical features include joint pain, effusion, periarticular fibrosis, soft tissue swelling, and palpable joint hyperthermia. Signs may be intermittent or persistent.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management with NSAIDs (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID) once inflammation is controlled; Arthrodesis may be considered for irreversible joint damage.
Causative:: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days, tapered gradually to 1 mg/kg PO SID for 1–2 weeks, then to 0.5 mg/kg PO every other day for several weeks based on clinical response.
Supportive:: For refractory cases: Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 14–21 days, then 1 mg/kg PO every other day for 30–60 days beyond remission (dogs only). Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO BID, tapered after remission. Methotrexate 0.2–0.3 mg/kg PO once weekly or 2.5 mg/m² PO SID (dogs only). Regular monitoring of CBC and liver enzymes is essential during immunosuppressive treatment. Prognosis is generally good, though lifelong management may be needed.

Erosive ArthritisChronic, immune-mediated joint disease characterized by progressive articular cartilage and bone destruction. Rheumatoid arthritis and idiopathic erosive polyarthritis are the most common forms in dogs and cats.
Symptoms:: Chronic lameness, joint swelling, pain, and stiffness. Distal limb joints (carpus, tarsus, interphalangeal) are most commonly affected. Deformities, ankylosis, and reduced range of motion may develop. In some cases, fever, lethargy, and muscle atrophy accompany the joint changes.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Analgesia with NSAIDs (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID) to control pain and inflammation. Physiotherapy to preserve joint mobility.
Causative:: Immunosuppressive therapy with Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days, tapered based on clinical response. Disease-modifying drugs such as Leflunomide (2 mg/kg PO SID) or Methotrexate (0.2–0.3 mg/kg PO once weekly) may be added for resistant cases.
Supportive:: Adjunctive use of Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO BID tapered after remission, or Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 14–21 days then 1 mg/kg every other day (dogs only). Nutritional support with omega-3 fatty acids. Arthrodesis or joint replacement may be considered in advanced cases. Prognosis is guarded, as erosive changes are irreversible, but long-term immunomodulation can control progression.

Escherichia coli InfectionEscherichia coli infections in dogs and cats are commonly caused by enterotoxigenic strains and often occur in association with compromised immunity, poor hygiene, or concurrent gastrointestinal disease.
Symptoms:: Acute diarrhea is the most prominent clinical sign, often accompanied in severe cases by dehydration, lethargy, fever, and abdominal discomfort.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Fluid therapy with IV crystalloids (e.g., lactated Ringer's or 0.9% NaCl) plus electrolytes to correct dehydration and acid-base imbalance. Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID for intestinal spasms.
Causative:: Targeted antimicrobial therapy based on culture and sensitivity testing:
- Ceftiofur: 2.2 mg/kg SC SID for systemic infections.
- Cefuroxime: 20–30 mg/kg IV or IM BID for moderate to severe infections.
- Cefotaxime: 30 mg/kg IV, IM, or SC BID (broad-spectrum cephalosporin).
- Enrofloxacin: 5 mg/kg PO, SC, or IV SID (avoid in young animals due to cartilage risk).
- Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine: 15–30 mg/kg PO BID (ensure hydration to reduce crystalluria risk).
Supportive:: Probiotics containing Enterococcus faecium or Saccharomyces boulardii. Easily digestible diet (e.g., boiled chicken and rice) during recovery.
Note: Antimicrobial selection should be guided by culture and sensitivity testing. Prognosis is favorable with prompt supportive care and appropriate antibiotics.

Intestinal ObstructionCan be partial or complete, most often caused by foreign bodies, neoplasia, intussusception, or strictures. Rapid diagnosis and intervention are essential to prevent ischemic necrosis or perforation.
Symptoms:: Vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and dehydration. Severe or prolonged cases may result in collapse from hypovolemia, endotoxemia, or septicemia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID or Ondansetron 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV BID. Pain management with Methadone 0.2 mg/kg IV q4–6h or Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV q6–8h.
Causative:: Exploratory laparotomy for complete obstruction, foreign body removal, or suspected perforation. Resection and anastomosis if bowel viability is compromised.
Supportive:: IV fluid therapy with Lactated Ringer’s solution at shock doses (dogs: 90 mL/kg/hr; cats: 60 mL/kg/hr), reassessing every 15–30 min. Potassium supplementation (20–40 mEq/L added to fluids, adjusted to serum potassium). Broad-spectrum antibiotics: Ampicillin 22 mg/kg IV TID + Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IV SID, or Cefazolin 22 mg/kg IV TID if perforation suspected. Post-operative nutritional support and continued IV fluids until stable.
Prognosis is favorable if treated early; delayed intervention increases risk of septic peritonitis and mortality.

Complete Intestinal ObstructionA life-threatening emergency caused by blockage of the intestinal lumen, preventing passage of ingesta or fluids. Without intervention, necrosis, perforation, or sepsis may develop.
Symptoms:: Acute onset of vomiting, abdominal distention, anorexia, severe abdominal pain (restlessness, panting, prayer posture), hemorrhagic or watery diarrhea, and systemic shock signs (depression, tachycardia, weak pulses).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID or Ondansetron 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV TID if needed. Pain management with opioids such as Methadone 0.2 mg/kg IV q4–6h. Gastric protectants: Omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO SID.
Causative:: Exploratory laparotomy to identify and remove the obstructive lesion (foreign body, mass, intussusception). Resection and anastomosis if bowel viability is compromised.
Supportive:: IV fluids: Lactated Ringer’s or Plasmalyte at shock doses (dogs: 60–90 mL/kg; cats: 40–60 mL/kg). Colloids: Hetastarch 10–20 mL/kg IV over 1–2 hrs if hypovolemia present. Electrolyte correction (e.g., KCl 20–40 mEq/L added to fluids as needed). Broad-spectrum antibiotics: Ampicillin 20 mg/kg IV TID + Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IV SID. Post-operative care: continued hydration, analgesia, and gradual reintroduction of food after 24–48 hrs.
Prompt surgical intervention with perioperative stabilization is critical for survival.

Feline MicrosporidiosisA rare but emerging infectious disease caused by microsporidian parasites, particularly Encephalitozoon cuniculi or Encephalitozoon intestinalis. It may affect the central nervous system, kidneys, eyes, or muscles, often opportunistic in immunocompromised animals.
Symptoms:: Severe muscle spasms, superficial corneal infection with blepharospasm, depression, and progressive paralysis.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Dantrolene 1 mg/kg PO BID or 2–3 mg/kg IV slowly for severe muscle spasms (monitor hepatic function). Topical ocular therapy with Lomefloxacin or Ofloxacin drops TID for corneal involvement.
Causative:: Albendazole 25 mg/kg PO SID for 10–21 days (monitor for bone marrow suppression) or Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 14 days as a safer alternative.
Supportive:: Hydration, nutritional support, and management of neurological symptoms.
Prognosis is guarded, depending on organ involvement and immune status.

Canine MicrosporidiosisA rare but emerging zoonotic disease caused by obligate intracellular fungal-like organisms of the phylum Microsporidia. It primarily affects immunocompromised animals and is more commonly reported in young or neonatal dogs. Transmission may occur via ingestion of spores from contaminated environments or vertical transmission.
Symptoms:: In neonatal puppies (under 6 weeks): ataxia, seizures, blindness, and abnormal behavioral changes such as aggression or disorientation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Seizure control with Levetiracetam 20 mg/kg PO TID; fluid and nutritional support.
Causative:: Albendazole 25 mg/kg PO SID for 10–14 days (first-line, monitor for bone marrow suppression); Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 5–10 days (mild to moderate cases). Fluconazole is generally ineffective.
Supportive:: Maintain hydration, provide caloric support, and monitor neurological function. Zoonotic precautions are essential, especially in immunocompromised households.
Prognosis is guarded and depends on age, immune status, and severity of infection.

Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO)A syndrome characterized by an abnormal proliferation of bacteria in the small intestine, which interferes with digestion and absorption. It can be idiopathic or secondary to other gastrointestinal disorders such as exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, partial obstructions, or motility disturbances.
Symptoms:: Chronic or intermittent diarrhea, weight loss, increased flatulence, borborygmi, and poor coat condition are the most prominent clinical signs.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Dietary management with a highly digestible, low-fat, hypoallergenic diet to minimize intestinal inflammation and support digestion. Probiotics administered daily to help restore normal intestinal flora after antibiotic therapy.
Causative:: Tylosin 25 mg/kg PO BID for 4–6 weeks (commonly used in dogs with chronic antibiotic-responsive diarrhea); Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 10–14 days (antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects); Oxytetracycline 20–25 mg/kg PO TID for 2–4 weeks may be considered as an alternative.
Supportive:: Address underlying conditions such as exocrine pancreatic insufficiency or inflammatory bowel disease. Avoid long-term antibiotic use unless recurrence is documented.
Prognosis is good with appropriate therapy and dietary management.

Hepatocellular Failure (Cholestasis)A condition characterized by impaired hepatocyte function and/or impaired bile flow, resulting in accumulation of bilirubin, bile acids, and toxins. It may be caused by acute or chronic liver disease, biliary obstruction, hepatic lipidosis, infectious hepatitis, or drug-induced hepatopathy.
Symptoms:: Jaundice, anorexia, vomiting, lethargy, hepatomegaly, ascites, coagulopathy, pruritus, and neurological signs such as hepatic encephalopathy in advanced cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care including fluid therapy for dehydration, antiemetics (Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID or Ondansetron 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV BID), and nutritional support with a highly digestible, moderate-protein diet.
Causative:: Identify and address the underlying cause: bile duct obstruction (surgical or endoscopic intervention), infectious hepatitis (appropriate antibiotics or antivirals), or drug-induced hepatopathy (discontinue hepatotoxic drugs).
Supportive:: Hepatoprotective agents such as SAMe (S-Adenosylmethionine 20 mg/kg PO SID) or Ursodeoxycholic acid 10–15 mg/kg PO SID. Antioxidants (Vitamin E 400–800 IU/day PO). Monitor liver enzymes, coagulation profile, and bile acids regularly.
Prognosis depends on the underlying cause and extent of liver damage; early intervention improves outcomes, whereas advanced hepatocellular failure carries a guarded prognosis.

Oral Cavity Trauma (Mandibular/Maxillary Fractures, Lacerations, Hematomas)Trauma to the oral cavity involving soft tissues or bones, often from accidents, fights, or iatrogenic injury.
Symptoms:: Refusal to eat or drink, dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), ptyalism (excessive salivation), pain on palpation, bleeding, and swelling. Lacerations, bruising, or fractures of the mandible/maxilla may be evident.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Soft or liquid diet for 1–2 weeks to reduce oral stress. Analgesia with Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID in dogs or 0.05 mg/kg in cats, or Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IM or buccal BID–TID.
Causative:: Surgical correction of fractures with interdental wiring, external fixation, or bone plates. Tooth extraction for severe or non-restorable dental trauma. Wound care with sterile saline or diluted chlorhexidine and surgical debridement if needed.
Supportive:: Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID or Clindamycin 5.5–11 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days. Close monitoring for infection, malocclusion, or difficulty in prehension and mastication.
Prognosis is generally good with appropriate intervention.

Intestinal Parasitism (Whipworm, Heterobilharzia)Infection of the intestines by whipworms (Trichuris vulpis) or Heterobilharzia americana, causing chronic gastrointestinal disturbances.
Symptoms:: Chronic diarrhea, weight loss, hematochezia or melena, increased flatulence, abdominal discomfort, and poor body condition. Whipworms primarily affect the cecum and colon, while Heterobilharzia may cause granulomatous intestinal and hepatic disease.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID for relief of abdominal cramping. Supportive care with highly digestible diet, hydration, and electrolyte balance.
Causative:: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 3–5 days; repeat in 3 weeks and 3 months for whipworm. Milbemycin oxime 0.5–1 mg/kg PO monthly or Moxidectin/Imidacloprid combination for prevention/treatment. Praziquantel 25 mg/kg PO or SC BID for 2–10 days for Heterobilharzia.
Supportive:: Fecal examination and PCR for diagnosis and monitoring, ensure hydration, nutritional support, and electrolyte maintenance.
Prognosis is good with timely treatment and appropriate supportive care.

Clostridial ColitisInfection and overgrowth of Clostridium species in the colon causing chronic large-bowel diarrhea.
Symptoms:: Chronic diarrhea (frequent defecation, small volumes, mucus, straining), abdominal discomfort, flatulence, and occasional hematochezia. Often associated with dietary indiscretion, antibiotic use, or stress.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID for relief of intestinal cramping. Dietary modification to a highly digestible, low-residue, or hydrolyzed protein diet. Probiotics containing Enterococcus faecium or Saccharomyces boulardii to support normal flora.
Causative:: Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 5–10 days (first-line). Tylosin 20–25 mg/kg PO BID for 7–14 days for chronic or relapsing cases.
Supportive:: Monitor hydration, ensure proper nutrition, and reassess fecal consistency. Culture/sensitivity if systemic signs or recurrent disease are present. Consider endoscopy for persistent/refractory cases.
Prognosis is generally good with timely antibiotic therapy, dietary management, and supportive care.

Hyperparathyroidism in Dogs A disorder primarily caused by a parathyroid adenoma, resulting in excessive PTH secretion and subsequent hypercalcemia. Common in older dogs and characterized by insidious onset of clinical signs.
Symptoms:: Persistent hypercalcemia, polyuria, polydipsia, urinary incontinence, increased urine output, anorexia, vomiting, constipation, lethargy, muscle weakness, shivering, twitching, stiffness, limb pain, and seizures.
Treatment Symptomatic:: IV fluids (0.9% NaCl) to promote diuresis and calciuresis; furosemide 2–4 mg/kg IV or SC TID after rehydration; prednisone 1–2.2 mg/kg PO BID or dexamethasone 0.1–0.22 mg/kg IV or SC BID; sodium bicarbonate 1 mEq/kg IV slowly if acidosis is present (monitor for alkalosis).
Causative:: Surgical removal of the affected parathyroid gland (parathyroidectomy) is curative.
Supportive:: Bisphosphonates: pamidronate 1.3–2 mg/kg IV over 2–4 hours or etidronate 10–20 mg/kg/day PO BID to inhibit bone resorption. Postoperative monitoring for hypocalcemia is essential. Serial assessment of ionized calcium and PTH levels is crucial for ongoing management.

Trigeminal NeuropathyAn idiopathic condition characterized by bilateral trigeminal nerve motor dysfunction, sometimes immune-mediated, primarily affecting middle-aged to older dogs and rarely cats.
Symptoms:: Acute onset of jaw paresis or paralysis with inability to close the mouth, drooling, difficulty prehending food and water, and occasionally facial nerve dysfunction such as facial droop or reduced blink reflex.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: No specific therapy is usually required as the condition is self-limiting.
Supportive: Nutritional support via syringe feeding or esophagostomy tube if necessary; maintain hydration with subcutaneous or IV fluids; eye lubrication (artificial tears TID–QID) if decreased blink reflex is present.
Most patients recover spontaneously within 2–4 weeks, though full recovery may take 2–3 months. Prognosis is generally favorable, but monitoring for aspiration and secondary complications is essential in severely affected animals.

Bordetella bronchiseptica Infection A gram-negative coccobacillus causing upper respiratory infections in dogs and cats, including canine infectious tracheobronchitis (kennel cough) and feline upper respiratory disease complex.
Symptoms: Snoring, inspiratory dyspnea, hemoptysis, sneezing, nasal discharge, signs of upper airway obstruction such as laryngeal edema or stridor. May progress to severe laryngitis, tracheitis, or pneumonia, especially in immunocompromised animals.
Treatment Symptomatic: Nebulization and coupage to mobilize secretions; ensure hydration and nutrition.
Causative: Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days; alternatives include Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO or SC SID or Amoxicillin-Clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID. Antitussives (dogs only) such as Butorphanol 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID or Hydrocodone 0.22 mg/kg PO BID–TID. Anti-inflammatory therapy: Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID for 3–5 days if severe laryngeal or tracheal inflammation.
Supportive: Temporary tracheostomy may be needed in severe airway obstruction. Vaccination recommended for high-risk animals. Prognosis is generally good with proper care, though co-infections can complicate recovery.

Chronic Ulcerative ColitisAn inflammatory disease of the colon, often immune-mediated, that results in mucosal ulceration, infiltration by inflammatory cells, and altered motility. Predisposed breeds include Boxers and French Bulldogs, though other breeds may also be affected. Dietary intolerance, dysbiosis, or infection may contribute.
Symptoms:: Chronic large bowel diarrhea with mucus and fresh blood, tenesmus, urgency, and frequent defecation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antispasmodics such as Butylscopolamine 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID for relief of colonic cramping. Stool softening with Magnesium hydroxide 10 mL/dog PO SID.
Causative:: Antibiotics including Cefotaxime 30 mg/kg IV/IM/SC BID, Ceftiofur 2.2 mg/kg SC SID, or Cefuroxime 10–12 mg/kg IV BID. Anti-inflammatory therapy with Prednisone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID, and Sulfasalazine 10–15 mg/kg PO TID for 3–4 weeks (taper gradually; avoid in cats or monitor closely).
Supportive:: Dietary management with a novel protein or hydrolyzed protein diet. Regular monitoring of clinical response and adjustment of therapy as needed.
Prognosis depends on inflammation severity, response to treatment, and management of dietary or environmental triggers. Chronic relapses may occur.

Bacterial MeningoencephalitisInflammation of the brain and meninges caused by bacterial pathogens. Common causative organisms include Pasteurella, Staphylococcus, Actinomyces, Nocardia, Streptococcus, Klebsiella spp., and Escherichia coli. Entry may occur via hematogenous spread, direct extension from otitis or sinusitis, or penetrating trauma.
Symptoms:: Acute onset of fever, vomiting, bradycardia, anorexia, shock, hypotension, hyperesthesia, cervical pain and rigidity, seizures, and cranial nerve deficits.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Fluid therapy, anti-emetics, seizure control (e.g., levetiracetam or diazepam), and nutritional support.
Causative:: Antibiotic therapy including Chloramphenicol 50 mg/kg PO/IV/IM/SC BID, Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO/IV TID, Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg IV/PO SID, Trimethoprim-sulfonamide 15 mg/kg PO BID, and Azithromycin 8–10 mg/kg PO SID for atypical/resistant infections.
Supportive:: Adjunctive therapies such as Cytarabine 50 mg/m² SC/IV q12h for 2 days (repeat every 3 weeks) if severe inflammation or immune-mediated component suspected, short-term Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID after initial antibiotics if indicated.
CSF analysis and advanced imaging (MRI) are essential for diagnosis. Culture and sensitivity guide targeted therapy. Prognosis is guarded and depends on rapidity of intervention and extent of CNS involvement.

Feline Leukemia Virus Infection (FeLV) Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) is a single-stranded RNA retrovirus in the family Retroviridae. It causes chronic progressive disease in cats, including immunosuppression, bone marrow suppression, and neoplastic conditions such as lymphoma and leukemia. Transmission occurs via saliva, nasal secretions, and vertical routes. Persistent infection may result in multisystemic disease due to immune dysfunction or neoplasia.
Symptoms: Fever, depression, persistent diarrhea, generalized lymphadenopathy, dyspnea, uremia, ataxia, paralysis or seizures, hemolytic anemia, infertility, abortion, osteochondromatosis. Lymphoma is a common associated neoplasia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID) for secondary infections; blood transfusions for severe anemia (PCV <15%).
Causative: No curative therapy exists; control of viral replication with antivirals may slow progression. AZT (Zidovudine) 5–10 mg/kg PO BID may benefit cats with progressive disease, particularly those with neurologic or hematologic signs (monitor closely for anemia).
Supportive: Exogenous erythropoietin (100 U/kg SC, three times weekly) for anemia due to bone marrow suppression. Immunomodulators such as human recombinant interferon-α (rHuIFN-α) 30 IU PO SID on alternating weeks may improve survival. Experimental use of Staphylococcus aureus protein A (10 mg/kg IP twice weekly) has been reported for neutropenia or immune modulation. Good nursing care, stress minimization, and strict indoor housing to reduce secondary infections are essential.
Prognosis: Variable depending on stage and complications. Many cats remain stable for extended periods with good supportive care. Euthanasia is not automatically recommended if the cat is stable and comfortable.

Feline Babesiosis Feline babesiosis is a rare but potentially serious tick-borne disease caused by intraerythrocytic protozoa of the genus Babesia, particularly Babesia felis. It is more commonly reported in certain endemic regions. Infection leads to hemolytic anemia due to erythrocyte destruction, and may also result in icterus and systemic inflammatory responses. Diagnosis is confirmed via blood smear, PCR, or serology.
Symptoms: Lethargy, anorexia, generalized weakness, pale mucous membranes, icterus, intermittent or persistent diarrhea. Severe cases present with hemolytic anemia and systemic illness.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluid therapy for dehydration and electrolyte imbalances; blood transfusion indicated if PCV <15%.
Causative: Primaquine phosphate 0.5 mg/kg PO SID × 3 days, or 1 mg/cat IM every 36 hours × 6 doses. Alternatively, Atovaquone 13.3 mg/kg PO TID + Azithromycin 10 mg/kg PO SID × 10 days may be used in refractory or severe cases (evidence in cats is limited).
Supportive: Strict tick control with ectoparasiticides such as fluralaner or selamectin-sarolaner to eliminate vectors and prevent reinfection. Good nursing care, stress reduction, and nutritional support improve recovery.
Prognosis: Variable. Early intervention improves survival; severe anemia or delayed treatment worsens prognosis.

Periodontitis and Gingivitis Periodontitis and gingivitis in dogs and cats are primarily caused by plaque accumulation and bacterial colonization, especially by Staphylococcus and Streptococcus spp. Chronic inflammation leads to progressive destruction of periodontal ligaments and alveolar bone. If untreated, it can result in systemic infections affecting the heart, liver, and kidneys.
Symptoms: Halitosis, excessive salivation, dysphagia, visible attachment loss around one or more teeth, gingival redness and swelling, tooth mobility, and oral discomfort.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics (e.g., Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID) for pain relief; soft diet for 5–7 days after dental procedures.
Causative: Professional ultrasonic scaling (above and below the gumline) and tooth polishing; irrigation of periodontal pockets with chlorhexidine 0.12%; systemic antibiotics such as Clarithromycin 20 mg/kg PO BID × 7–10 days or Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO/SC SID if gram-negative or anaerobic coverage is needed; local doxycycline gel (e.g., Doxirobe®) applied into periodontal pockets.
Supportive: Tooth extractions for advanced mobility or severe bone loss; good oral hygiene maintenance with daily brushing; regular dental prophylaxis to prevent recurrence.
Prognosis: Good with early intervention and proper dental care. Chronic untreated cases may progress to systemic disease with guarded prognosis.

Acute Colitis in DogsAcute onset of frequent small-volume defecation, often accompanied by straining (tenesmus), fresh blood, and mucus is the hallmark sign. Other prominent symptoms include discomfort (e.g., pacing, drooling), vomiting, mild inappetence, and perineal staining with blood or mucus. Affected animals typically remain bright and alert. Acute colitis refers to inflammation of the large intestine, often involving the colon and sometimes the rectum or cecum. Causes include abrupt dietary changes, ingestion of spoiled or inappropriate food, parasitic infections (e.g., Trichuris vulpis), bacterial overgrowth (Clostridium perfringens type A), protozoal agents (e.g., Giardia), and stress-related dysbiosis.
Treatment - Supportive care:
- Withhold food for 12-24 hours (in adult dogs), allow access to fresh water.
- After fasting, reintroduce a bland, highly digestible, low-residue diet (e.g., boiled chicken and rice or commercial GI prescription diet) for 3-5 days.
- Antimotility agents (dogs only, not recommended for infectious causes):
- Loperamide 0.2 mg/kg (PO BID).
- Antisecretory/anti-inflammatory agents:
- Bismuth subsalicylate 0.5–1 mL/kg (PO TID) for dogs.
- Antibiotics (if clostridial or protozoal infection is suspected):
- Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg (PO BID) for 5–7 days.
- Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg (PO BID) as needed.
- Antiparasitic therapy:
- Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg (PO SID for 3–5 days) for Trichuris and other nematodes.
- Praziquantel 5–10 mg/kg (PO once) for cestodes.
Prognosis is typically excellent with appropriate treatment and dietary modification. Recurrence is common if underlying causes are not addressed (e.g., diet, parasites).

Candidiasis in Dogs Candidiasis is a fungal infection caused by Candida albicans, a commensal yeast that becomes opportunistic under immunosuppression, prolonged antibiotic or corticosteroid use, or dysbiosis. It most often affects the oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract, or mucocutaneous junctions.
Symptoms: Oral white plaques (tongue, palate, gingiva), halitosis, dysphagia, hypersalivation. Common in immunocompromised dogs, especially puppies or those receiving prolonged antibiotics/steroids.
Treatment Symptomatic: Maintain oral hygiene; chlorhexidine 0.12% rinses/swabs BID for local control of oral lesions.
Causative: Systemic antifungals — Flucytosine 25–50 mg/kg PO or IV q8h × 10–14 days (monitor bone marrow). Topical antifungals — Nystatin oral suspension 100,000 units PO q6h (swish/swallow) × 7–10 days; Nystatin cream/ointment BID–TID for mucocutaneous lesions. Systemic azoles (e.g., Itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO SID) may be needed for chronic or disseminated cases.
Supportive: Discontinue/reduce antibiotics or steroids when possible. Ensure hydration and nutrition.
Prognosis: Favorable with early therapy and correction of underlying conditions. Poorer prognosis in disseminated or chronic systemic disease.

Neosporosis Neosporosis is caused by the protozoan Neospora caninum, leading to neuromuscular disease, myositis, and occasionally encephalitis or reproductive failure. Transmission occurs transplacentally or via ingestion of contaminated material. Dogs are definitive hosts, and the disease is globally distributed.
Symptoms: Progressive ascending paralysis (especially pelvic limbs), hyperextension, ataxia, and muscle atrophy. Additional signs: polymyositis, dysphagia, head tilt, ulcerative dermatitis. In adults, pneumonia and neurological signs may occur. Congenital infection in puppies is often fatal.
Treatment Symptomatic: Physical therapy to prevent contractures; nutritional support; hydration. Bromhexine 2 mg/kg PO BID or 8 mg/dog IM BID may help in pneumonia cases.
Causative: Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine 15–20 mg/kg PO BID + Pyrimethamine 1 mg/kg PO SID for 3–4 weeks. Alternatively, Clindamycin 10–12 mg/kg PO TID for 4–6 weeks.
Supportive: General nursing care, assisted feeding, monitoring for secondary infections.
Prognosis: Guarded. Early aggressive treatment may halt progression. Prognosis is poor in congenital cases or when severe neurological deficits are present.

Nutritional Myodegeneration(white muscle disease) A deficiency of selenium and/or vitamin E. It primarily affects young, growing animals fed a deficient diet, leading to degeneration of skeletal and cardiac muscle.
Symptoms: Generalized weakness, difficulty rising, stiff gait, and painful or swollen muscles. Severe cases: paraparesis, dysphagia, dysphonia, and sudden death in puppies due to myocardial necrosis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Rest and restricted activity during muscle recovery; pain relief and assisted feeding as needed.
Causative: Vitamin E 10–20 IU/kg PO SID–BID; Selenium 0.01–0.05 mg/kg PO SID or 0.01 mg/kg IM once weekly, depending on formulation and selenium status.
Supportive: Provide a complete, balanced diet appropriate for age and species; ensure hydration and adequate caloric intake.
Prognosis: Favorable with early intervention if cardiac involvement is absent. Poor if myocardial or intercostal muscle degeneration is present, as sudden death may occur.
Prevention through balanced commercial diets or supplementation in at-risk regions is strongly recommended.

Eclampsia (Hypocalcemia) Eclampsia, also called postpartum hypocalcemia or puerperal tetany, is an acute, life-threatening condition caused by a sudden drop in blood calcium during peak lactation. It occurs most often in small-breed dogs within the first 2–3 weeks postpartum.
Symptoms: Muscle tremors, tetany, stiff gait, dilated pupils, ataxia, disorientation, and seizures. Severe cases may progress to collapse, hyperthermia, and coma.
Treatment Symptomatic: Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg IV slowly or Midazolam 0.2–0.5 mg/kg IV/intranasal for seizures. Sodium pentobarbital 3–5 mg/kg IV if unresponsive. Dantrolene 1–2 mg/kg IV or PO BID if severe tetany.
Causative: 10% Calcium gluconate 0.5–1.5 mL/kg slow IV over 10–20 minutes with ECG monitoring (watch for bradycardia/arrhythmias). Transition to oral calcium (calcium carbonate or gluconate) 50–100 mg elemental Ca/kg/day divided BID–TID. Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) 10–20 IU/kg/day PO with weekly calcium monitoring.
Supportive: Wean puppies temporarily to reduce lactational demand. Provide IV fluids with dextrose for anorexia or dehydration. Maintain body temperature.
Prognosis: Excellent with prompt treatment. Recurrence is common; prevention includes calcium supplementation in subsequent pregnancies and close postpartum monitoring.

Anal Sac Neoplasia (Rectal Neoplasia) An aggressive malignant tumor of the anal sac apocrine glands. It is locally invasive and frequently metastasizes to regional lymph nodes and lungs. Paraneoplastic hypercalcemia occurs in up to 50% of cases, contributing to renal dysfunction.
Symptoms: Firm, often unilateral perianal mass, excessive licking of the anal region, dyschezia, tenesmus, constipation, and occasionally systemic signs (vomiting, lethargy) due to hypercalcemia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Management of hypercalcemia—IV fluids (0.9% NaCl at 2–3× maintenance), furosemide 1–2 mg/kg IV q6–8h post-rehydration, and bisphosphonates (Pamidronate 1–2 mg/kg IV over 2h every 3–4 weeks).
Causative: Wide surgical excision of the tumor with ipsilateral or bilateral sublumbar lymph node removal. Adjunct chemotherapy with Mitoxantrone (5–6 mg/m² IV q3w) or Carboplatin (300 mg/m² IV q3w). Radiation therapy if incomplete excision or non-resectable tumors.
Supportive: Analgesia, stool softeners if needed, and nutritional support. Regular thoracic radiographs and abdominal ultrasound for metastasis monitoring.
Prognosis: Depends on metastatic status. Median survival is significantly prolonged with aggressive surgical removal plus chemotherapy. Early detection and multimodal therapy improve long-term outcomes.

Immune-Mediated Hemolytic Anemia (IMHA) An autoimmune disorder in which the body produces antibodies (IgG, IgM) against its own red blood cells, leading to their destruction. It may be primary (idiopathic) or secondary to infections, neoplasia, or drugs. The disease can progress rapidly and may be life-threatening.
Symptoms: Acute lethargy, pale mucous membranes, weakness, jaundice (icterus), tachycardia, tachypnea, dark urine (hemoglobinuria), fever, splenomegaly, and in some cases petechiae or spontaneous bleeding.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids for dehydration and renal protection in hemoglobinuria; gastroprotectants (omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO SID) during corticosteroid therapy; oxygen supplementation if severely anemic.
Causative: Immunosuppressive therapy—Prednisolone 2 mg/kg/day (PO, divided BID, taper gradually), Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only), Mycophenolate mofetil 10–20 mg/kg PO BID, or Cyclosporine A 5–10 mg/kg PO BID for refractory cases.
Supportive/Preventive: Antithrombotic therapy to reduce thromboembolism—Clopidogrel 1–2 mg/kg PO SID (preferred), Aspirin 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID, or heparin (unfractionated 75–100 IU/kg SC TID; enoxaparin 1 mg/kg SC BID) in high-risk cases.
Prognosis: Highly variable; early aggressive therapy significantly improves survival. Relapses are common and long-term immunosuppression may be required.

Perianal Adenoma Perianal adenomas are benign, androgen-dependent tumors originating from perianal (hepatoid) glands. They are most common in intact older male dogs (over 8 years), rare in females, and can occasionally transform into perianal adenocarcinomas. Differential diagnoses include anal sac adenocarcinoma, perianal adenocarcinoma, and inflammatory or infectious perianal disease.
Symptoms: Firm, solitary or multiple perianal masses (around anus, tailhead, prepuce, inguinal region), hematochezia, excessive licking, ulceration with secondary infection, foul-smelling discharge. Tumors are slow-growing but may ulcerate if untreated.
Treatment Symptomatic: Wound hygiene for ulcerated lesions, topical antibiotics or antiseptics for secondary infections, analgesics if painful.
Causative: Castration in intact males is the treatment of choice, often resulting in spontaneous regression within weeks.
Supportive/Adjunct: Surgical excision for large, persistent, or ulcerated tumors; cryosurgery for small lesions (rarely used due to tissue damage); radiation therapy for non-resectable or recurrent masses; chemotherapy (e.g., Carboplatin 300 mg/m² IV q3w or Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO 3–5 days/week) reserved for malignant or recurrent cases.
Prognosis: Excellent with castration and/or surgical removal. Recurrence is rare if androgenic stimulation is eliminated. Malignant transformation is uncommon but possible.

Acute Pancreatitis in CatsA sudden inflammatory condition of the pancreas characterized by autodigestion of pancreatic tissue due to premature enzyme activation. Frequently associated with triaditis, toxoplasmosis, drug reactions, hepatic lipidosis, IBD, trauma, or may be idiopathic.
Symptoms:: Vomiting, anorexia or inappetence, weight loss, lethargy, dehydration, diarrhea, icterus, hypothermia, dyspnea, and abdominal discomfort. Clinical signs are often nonspecific, making diagnosis challenging without laboratory and imaging support.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Fluid therapy with Lactated Ringer’s Solution or balanced crystalloids (≈2.5× maintenance) adjusted to hydration status. Potassium supplementation (KCl 20–40 mEq/L) as needed. Antiemetics such as Metoclopramide 0.2–0.4 mg/kg SC TID or CRI (1–2 mg/kg/day); Ondansetron 0.1–0.5 mg/kg IV/PO q12–24h; Dolasetron 0.6 mg/kg IV SID. Gastroprotectants such as Famotidine 0.5–1.0 mg/kg IV/PO SID or Omeprazole 0.5–1.0 mg/kg PO SID.
Causative:: Address underlying or concurrent conditions (e.g., triaditis, toxoplasmosis, hepatic or intestinal inflammation). Withdrawal of potential drug triggers.
Supportive:: Nutritional support with early enteral feeding, using low-fat, easily digestible diets; nasoesophageal or esophagostomy tube if anorexia over 48h. Pain management with Butorphanol 0.2–0.4 mg/kg SC/IV q6–8h or Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg buccally/IM q8–12h. Monitoring with serum fPLI, ultrasound, hydration, and systemic parameters.

Acute PancreatitisAn acute inflammatory condition of the pancreas resulting from autodigestion due to premature activation of digestive enzymes. Common triggers include high-fat diets, corticosteroid therapy, hyperlipidemia, trauma, or metabolic disorders.
Symptoms:: Acute vomiting, cranial abdominal pain (often with "prayer position"), anorexia, lethargy, fever, dehydration, diarrhea, tachypnea, tachycardia, weakness, icterus, abdominal distension, petechiation, and signs of systemic inflammation (shock, obtundation).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Analgesia with Butorphanol 0.2–0.4 mg/kg SC/IV q6–8h or Fentanyl CRI 3–5 µg/kg/h (adjuncts: ketamine/lidocaine CRI). Antiemetics: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC/IV q24h; Ondansetron 0.5 mg/kg IV q8–12h. Acid suppression: Omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO BID if GI ulceration suspected.
Causative:: Remove underlying triggers (e.g., high-fat diet, corticosteroid use, hyperlipidemia, metabolic disease). No direct curative therapy exists.
Supportive:: IV fluids with isotonic crystalloids (Lactated Ringer’s at 2–3× maintenance, 60–90 mL/kg/day) with potassium supplementation as needed. Early enteral feeding (24–48h) with low-fat, easily digestible diets; feeding tubes if anorexic. Antibiotics only if infection confirmed. Surgical intervention for pancreatic abscesses, necrosis, or pseudocysts.

Chronic PancreatitisA long-standing inflammatory condition of the pancreas leading to irreversible histological damage, often following repeated acute episodes. Chronic inflammation may result in pancreatic fibrosis, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), or secondary diabetes mellitus.
Symptoms:: Chronic intermittent vomiting, anorexia, abdominal discomfort, weight loss, intermittent diarrhea, lethargy, and fever. Cats often show subtle signs such as inappetence and weight loss, while dogs may present with episodic gastrointestinal distress.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics such as Maropitant 1 mg/kg PO/SC SID or Ondansetron 0.5–1 mg/kg PO/IV q12h. Gastroprotectant Omeprazole 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID. Analgesia with Buprenorphine 0.01–0.03 mg/kg SL (cats) or IM (dogs) q8–12h; Butorphanol 0.2–0.4 mg/kg SC q6–8h (dogs).
Causative:: Address underlying triggers such as hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, or concurrent IBD/cholangitis. Prednisolone may be used if immune-mediated disease is suspected (Dogs: 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID; Cats: 1–2 mg/kg PO SID, taper as needed).
Supportive:: Nutritional management with low-fat, highly digestible diets in dogs and moderate-fat, novel or hydrolyzed protein diets in cats. Feed frequent small meals. Regular monitoring with abdominal ultrasound and pancreatic lipase testing (Spec cPL/fPL).

Canine Parainfluenza Virus InfectionA viral respiratory disease caused by Canine Parainfluenza Virus type 5 (CPIV-5), a member of the Paramyxoviridae family. It is a major contributor to canine infectious respiratory disease complex (CIRDC, kennel cough). Though usually limited to the respiratory tract, rare systemic or neurologic involvement may occur, particularly with co-infections or immunosuppression.
Symptoms:: Coughing, nasal discharge, sneezing, and fever. In severe or rare cases: ataxia, seizures, rhythmic muscle contractions (myoclonus), and hemorrhagic enteritis.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care with hydration (balanced crystalloids such as Lactated Ringer’s or Normosol-R) and nutritional support (palatable high-calorie diet, feeding tube if anorexic). Antitussives for non-productive coughs: Hydrocodone 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO q6–12h in dogs. Anticonvulsants if neurologic: Gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO q8–12h or Levetiracetam 20 mg/kg PO/IV q8h.
Causative:: Treat secondary bacterial infections when present: Doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO or IV q12h for 7–10 days. Address coinfections such as Bordetella bronchiseptica or canine distemper virus.
Supportive:: Vaccination is key prevention—CPIV is included in most canine multivalent vaccines (DA2PP/DHPP) available in injectable and intranasal forms. Prognosis is excellent in mild cases with recovery in 7–10 days, but guarded if neurologic complications or coinfections occur.

Female Fertility DefectA reproductive disorder in dogs and cats characterized by reduced fertility and abnormal estrous cycles. Causes may include hormonal imbalances, ovarian cysts, luteal insufficiency, uterine pathology, systemic illness, poor breeding timing, or nutritional deficiencies. Diagnosis requires endocrine testing (progesterone, LH, FSH) and reproductive tract imaging.
Symptoms:: Decreased fertility, irregular estrous cycles, prolonged anestrus, reduced ovulation rates, failure to conceive despite mating, or early embryonic loss.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Cycle monitoring with serial progesterone assays and vaginal cytology to confirm ovulation and optimize breeding timing.
Causative:: Hormonal therapy such as Buserelin 4 μg/dog IM every 24–48h for 3–5 doses (induces ovulation via GnRH stimulation). Estradiol benzoate 0.1 mg/kg IM or SC on days 3, 5, and 7 post-mating may support implantation (use cautiously due to potential adverse effects).
Supportive:: Address underlying factors such as hypothyroidism, infection, nutritional deficiencies, or systemic illness. Ensure proper breeding management with precise timing. Prognosis depends on correcting underlying causes and effective hormonal support.

Canine Rotavirus InfectionA contagious viral enteritis in neonatal puppies that causes villous atrophy of the small intestine, leading to malabsorption and diarrhea. Transmission is fecal-oral, with strong environmental resistance. Coinfections (e.g., parvovirus, coronavirus, Giardia) may worsen disease severity.
Symptoms:
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oral rehydration or IV fluid therapy (e.g., lactated Ringer’s solution) to correct dehydration and electrolyte imbalance. Nutritional support with easily digestible diets during recovery.
Causative:: No specific antiviral treatment available; management is supportive only.
Supportive:: Antispasmodics such as Butylscopolamine (Spanil): 0.1 mL/kg IV or IM BID (injectable) or 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID depending on formulation. Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID) only if secondary bacterial infection is suspected. Maintain strict hygiene, isolate affected pups, and prevent exposure; no commercial vaccines currently exist. Prognosis is excellent with supportive care.

Congestive Heart Failure A clinical syndrome caused by the inability of the heart to maintain adequate cardiac output, leading to fluid accumulation in the lungs (pulmonary edema), pleural space, or abdominal cavity. Causes include mitral valve disease, dilated or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and systemic disorders such as hyperthyroidism in cats.
Symptoms:: Dogs: exercise intolerance, dyspnea, tachypnea, coughing, lethargy, anorexia, cold extremities, jugular venous distention, cardiac murmurs. Cats: open-mouth breathing, sudden hind limb paralysis (aortic thromboembolism), depression, vomiting, palpable thyroid nodules in hyperthyroid-associated disease. Cats rarely develop ascites compared to dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Oxygen therapy (oxygen cage or mask) during acute respiratory distress. Monitor respiratory rate, renal values, electrolytes, and thoracic radiographs regularly.
Causative:: Management of underlying structural or systemic disease (e.g., surgical correction where feasible, control of hyperthyroidism in cats, or targeted cardiomyopathy management).
Supportive::
- Diuretics: Furosemide 2–4 mg/kg IV/IM/SC initially, then 1–2 mg/kg PO BID–TID (dogs); 1–2 mg/kg IV or PO BID (cats). Spironolactone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID (RAAS inhibition, combined with furosemide).
- ACE inhibitors: Enalapril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO BID; Benazepril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID–BID (preferred in cats due to hepatic/renal excretion).
- Positive inotropes (dogs only): Pimobendan 0.25–0.3 mg/kg PO BID (improves survival in MVD and DCM). Digoxin 0.003–0.005 mg/kg PO BID (monitor serum levels carefully).
- Anti-thrombotics (cats): Clopidogrel 18.75 mg/cat PO SID to prevent thromboembolism.
- Additional options: Prednisolone 0.5–1.0 mg/kg PO SID × 5–7 days (only if airway inflammation present, not routine CHF therapy). Amiloride rarely used alone; may be included in combination diuretics for refractory cases.
Long-term management with careful titration of medications is essential. Prognosis varies depending on the underlying cause and treatment response.

Uterine Adenocarcinoma A malignant tumor arising from the endometrial lining, most commonly reported in older intact female dogs and rarely in cats. It may be locally invasive and metastasize to the lungs or peritoneum. Diagnosis typically involves imaging and histopathologic evaluation following surgical removal.
Symptoms:: Hematuria or serosanguineous vaginal discharge, infertility, small litter size, stillbirths, dystocia. Advanced cases: anorexia, dyspnea, abdominal distention (ascites), and depression due to metastasis or secondary complications.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Analgesia (e.g., Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV/IM q8–12h). Management of ascites if present (e.g., Furosemide 1–2 mg/kg IV q12h as needed).
Causative:: Ovariohysterectomy (OVH): gold standard for localized disease, offering curative intent and symptom control.
Supportive:: Adjuvant chemotherapy in metastatic cases:
- Carboplatin 300 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks (dose adjusted based on neutrophil count and renal function).
- Doxorubicin 30 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks (alternative for aggressive or metastatic tumors).
Prognosis:: Guarded to poor with metastasis; fair to good when early surgical excision is achieved.
Prompt OVH remains the most effective intervention. Chemotherapy may extend survival in metastatic cases, but prognosis depends heavily on tumor spread.

Severe Hypertension in Dogs A serious condition, often secondary to chronic kidney disease, hyperadrenocorticism, diabetes mellitus, or pheochromocytoma. Uncontrolled hypertension leads to irreversible end-organ damage, particularly to the eyes, brain, kidneys, and heart.
Symptoms:: Acute onset blindness (retinal detachment or hemorrhage), coma in advanced cases, ataxia, seizures, epistaxis, and lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Immediate blood pressure reduction to preserve vision and prevent neurologic injury.
Causative:: Address underlying condition (e.g., renal disease, pheochromocytoma, endocrine disorders).
Supportive::
- First-line antihypertensives:
- Amlodipine: 0.1–0.25 mg/kg PO SID; titrate to effect.
- Hydralazine HCl: 1–2 mg/kg PO BID; for hypertensive emergencies or inadequate amlodipine response.
- Adjunctive agents (for comorbidities):
- Enalapril: 0.25–1 mg/kg PO BID (especially if proteinuria/renal disease).
- Prazosin: 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID (or 1–2 mg/dog PO BID), useful in pheochromocytoma.
- Phenoxybenzamine: 0.25–1 mg/kg PO BID; non-selective alpha-blocker for adrenal tumors.
- Emergency/short-term control (hospitalized cases):
- Diazoxide: 5 mg/kg PO q8h, titrated cautiously up to 20 mg/kg q8h (rarely used due to side effects).
Monitoring:: Frequent blood pressure checks; monitor renal values and ocular changes.
Amlodipine remains the cornerstone of therapy, with adjunctive drugs tailored to underlying disease and severity. Prompt control is essential to prevent permanent blindness and neurologic injury.

Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) A fatal immune-mediated disease caused by a mutated feline coronavirus, primarily affecting young or immunocompromised cats. It manifests as effusive (wet) form with effusion or non-effusive (dry) form with neurologic and ocular signs.
Symptoms:: Progressive neurologic signs (coma, ataxia, seizures), ocular abnormalities (anterior uveitis, retinal lesions), abdominal distention with effusion (wet form), chronic weight loss, fever unresponsive to antibiotics, and lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Management of clinical signs such as seizures with anticonvulsants (Gabapentin 5–10 mg/kg PO BID) and supportive care for ocular/neurologic involvement.
Causative:: Antiviral therapy with GS-441524 (nucleoside analog) 4–6 mg/kg SC SID for 84 days; neurologic/ocular forms may require 8–10 mg/kg. Now commercially available in some regions.
Supportive::
- Fluid therapy: 40–60 mL/kg/day IV, adjusted to dehydration status.
- Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID when antivirals are unavailable (palliative, controversial).
- Nutritional support to maintain body condition.
Monitoring:: Regular CBC, serum globulin levels, and clinical reassessment for relapse.
Prognosis has shifted from grave to hopeful with GS-441524, achieving 70–80% remission. Effusive forms progress rapidly without therapy, while dry neurologic cases require aggressive and prolonged treatment.

Canine Idiopathic Vestibular Disease A sudden, non-progressive disturbance of balance with no identifiable underlying cause, most often seen in older dogs. Commonly mistaken for stroke but usually self-limiting.
Symptoms:: Acute onset head tilt, ataxia (uncoordinated gait), circling, falling or rolling to one side, and nystagmus (involuntary eye movements).
Treatment Symptomatic:: Antiemetics for nausea and motion sickness:
- Maropitant: 1 mg/kg SC SID.
- Meclizine: 12.5–25 mg/dog PO SID (for dogs over 10 kg).
Sedatives for agitation/disorientation:
- Diazepam: 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO or IV q8–12h if needed.
Causative:: None identified; condition is idiopathic and self-limiting.
Supportive:: Maintain hydration and nutrition (assist feeding if necessary). Minimize stress and confine to a safe, padded area to prevent injury.
Prognosis is favorable, with improvement typically seen within 72 hours and near-complete recovery in 1–2 weeks. Recurrence is possible but uncommon.

Hypertrophic CardiomyopathyThe most common feline cardiac disease, characterized by concentric thickening of the left ventricle without systemic hypertension or hyperthyroidism. Most often idiopathic, it primarily affects middle-aged male cats.
Symptoms:: Dynamic systolic murmur, gallop heart sound, tachypnea, dyspnea, pulmonary rales or crackles, lethargy, anorexia, and in severe cases, thromboembolism (hindlimb paresis, absent femoral pulse). Some cats remain asymptomatic until decompensation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Furosemide 1–2 mg/kg IV or IM q6–8h (pulmonary edema); Oxygen therapy via mask/cage/flow-by; Atenolol 6.25–12.5 mg/cat PO SID–BID (for LV outflow obstruction); Diltiazem 1.5–2.5 mg/kg PO TID or sustained-release 10 mg/kg PO SID; Clopidogrel 18.75 mg/cat PO SID (thromboembolism prevention).
Causative:: No definitive cure—management targets hemodynamic stabilization, CHF control, and thromboembolism prevention.
Supportive:: Enalapril or Benazepril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID (CHF or proteinuria); Low-sodium diet in CHF cases; Monitor renal parameters and electrolytes during long-term therapy.

Ulcerative KeratitisA painful corneal condition caused by trauma, infection (bacterial, viral, fungal), or tear film disorders. Rapid diagnosis and aggressive treatment are critical to prevent corneal perforation and vision loss.
Symptoms:: Conjunctival hyperemia, uveitis, blepharospasm, photophobia, epiphora, purulent ocular discharge, cloudy cornea, and fluorescein-positive corneal ulcer.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Atropine 1% eye drops 1 drop/eye SID–BID (ciliary spasm relief, pain control); Diclofenac 0.1% eye drops 1 drop/eye BID (avoid in deep ulcers/perforation risk).
Causative:: Topical antibiotics: Fusidic acid 1 drop/eye BID (Gram-positive) or Tobramycin/Ofloxacin 0.3% eye drops 1–2 drops/eye q6–8h (broad spectrum); Anti-collagenase therapy: Autologous serum or EDTA q6–8h for melting ulcers.
Supportive:: Surgical intervention (conjunctival or corneal graft) for deep or non-healing ulcers; Regular monitoring with fluorescein stain; Strict avoidance of corticosteroids.

Feline ChlamydophilosisA contagious bacterial infection caused by Chlamydophila felis, primarily affecting the eyes and upper respiratory tract. More common in young cats and multi-cat households.
Symptoms:: Chronic conjunctivitis, sneezing, serous to mucopurulent nasal discharge, mild fever, and occasionally abortion or infertility in queens.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Regular cleaning of nasal and ocular discharge; isolation of infected cats to reduce spread.
Causative:: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID for 28 days (preferred; give with food to reduce esophageal irritation); Azithromycin 7–10 mg/kg PO SID for 10–14 days (alternative for doxycycline-intolerant cats); Erythromycin 10–20 mg/kg PO BID (less common due to GI side effects).
Supportive:: Continue antibiotic therapy for ≥2 weeks beyond clinical resolution to prevent recurrence; vaccination reduces severity but does not eliminate infection.

PenicilliosisA rare but serious systemic fungal infection caused by Talaromyces (Penicillium) marneffei, primarily affecting immunocompromised animals. It involves the respiratory tract and may disseminate systemically if untreated.
Symptoms:: Dyspnea, persistent mucopurulent nasal discharge, sneezing, ulceration of the nostrils, unilateral nasal discharge, facial swelling, and oculonasal discharge.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen therapy if dyspneic; nasal flushing or debridement if obstructive discharge is present; nutritional support.
Causative:: Itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO BID for 6–12 weeks (first-line, effective and well tolerated); Fluconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO BID (preferred in CNS involvement due to better penetration); Ketoconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO BID (rarely used due to hepatotoxicity risk); Terbinafine 30 mg/kg PO SID (adjunctive therapy in refractory cases); Amphotericin B 0.25–0.5 mg/kg IV q48h, cumulative dose ≤10–12 mg/kg (for severe systemic cases, monitor renal function).
Supportive:: Prolonged antifungal therapy with careful monitoring of hepatic and renal parameters; early intervention improves prognosis significantly.

RhinosporidiosisA chronic granulomatous infection caused by Rhinosporidium seeberi, affecting nasal cavity and mucocutaneous tissues. More common in dogs than cats, with higher prevalence in tropical and subtropical regions.
Symptoms:: Dyspnea, stertorous (snoring) breathing, visible polypoid or nodular nasal masses, and mucocutaneous growths around nasal passages, conjunctiva, or skin folds. Lesions may be single or multiple, often pedunculated.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Relief of airway obstruction, cleaning of discharge, and supportive care for secondary infections.
Causative:: Complete surgical excision of nasal or dermal polyps using electrocautery or laser ablation. Recurrence is common if excision is incomplete; wide margins recommended.
Supportive:: Itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO BID for 4–8 weeks post-surgery; Dapsone 1 mg/kg PO BID (inhibits sporangial maturation, though data in veterinary cases is limited).

Hepatic Necrosis and Hepatic FailureA condition resulting from massive or progressive destruction of liver parenchyma, impairing glucose, protein, and toxin metabolism, often with cholestasis and systemic complications.
Symptoms:: Anorexia, vomiting, jaundice, lethargy, ascites, melena, hematemesis, hepatic encephalopathy (depression, disorientation), polyuria, polydipsia, and coagulopathies (excessive bleeding, prolonged clotting).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: IV fluids (5% dextrose in lactated Ringer’s) to correct hypoglycemia and dehydration; electrolyte correction with KCl (20–40 mEq/L) if hypokalemic; GI protection with Famotidine 0.5–1 mg/kg IV/PO SID and Sucralfate 0.5–1 g/dog PO TID before meals.
Causative:: Address underlying hepatic insult (toxins, infections, ischemia); broad-spectrum antibiotics such as Ampicillin 20 mg/kg IV TID + Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg IV BID to prevent sepsis/endotoxemia.
Supportive:: Fresh frozen plasma 10–20 mL/kg IV or whole blood 10–15 mL/kg IV if anemia/hemorrhage; diuretics (Furosemide 1–2 mg/kg IV or PO BID–TID; Spironolactone 2 mg/kg PO SID–BID for refractory ascites); Mannitol 0.5–1 g/kg IV over 20 min for encephalopathy/cerebral edema; vasopressors if hypotensive (Dopamine 2–5 µg/kg/min IV CRI; Dobutamine 2–10 µg/kg/min IV CRI).

Polycystic Kidney DiseaseAn inherited disorder (especially in Persian and related cat breeds) characterized by multiple fluid-filled cysts in the renal cortex and medulla, leading to progressive renal dysfunction. Cysts may also affect the liver and pancreas.
Symptoms:: Progressive azotemia, proteinuria, hypertension, polyuria/polydipsia, vomiting, anorexia, weight loss, palpable renal cysts, and renal enlargement or deformity.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Gabapentin 5–10 mg/kg PO BID–TID for pain/neuropathic management; SC fluids (60–100 mL/cat q24–48h) in later stages for dehydration; darbepoetin or erythropoietin-stimulating agents for anemia.
Causative:: No curative therapy available; genetic testing and breeding control are essential to prevent propagation of disease.
Supportive:: Renal diet with protein and phosphorus restriction; phosphate binders (aluminum hydroxide 30–90 mg/kg/day PO divided) if needed; Omega-3 fatty acids 50–100 mg/kg/day (EPA/DHA) for anti-inflammatory benefit; ACE inhibitors (Benazepril or Enalapril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID) to reduce proteinuria and control hypertension; Amlodipine 0.625–1.25 mg/cat PO SID if systolic BP over 160 mmHg.

Pulmonary OsteosarcomaA rare, aggressive, malignant bone-forming tumor primarily affecting the lungs, either as a primary site or as metastatic disease from skeletal osteosarcoma. Prognosis is poor due to rapid progression and limited treatment options.
Symptoms:: Progressive dyspnea, chronic sneezing, persistent or intermittent nasal discharge, coughing, weight loss, and non-specific systemic decline until advanced disease.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen therapy for dyspnea/hypoxemia; opioids (buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV/IM/SC q6–8h) for pain and respiratory comfort; NSAIDs (piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID) for anti-inflammatory and mild anti-neoplastic effect.
Causative:: Chemotherapy with Doxorubicin (30 mg/m² IV q3w, 4–6 cycles) or Cisplatin (60 mg/m² IV q3–4w, dogs only, with IV diuresis).
Supportive:: Palliative surgery may be considered in rare cases of solitary resectable pulmonary masses; ongoing monitoring and quality-of-life care are essential.

Pulmonary ChondrosarcomaA rare, malignant tumor of cartilaginous origin that may arise as a primary pulmonary neoplasm or via metastasis. It is locally invasive and aggressive, with potential for late metastasis.
Symptoms:: Progressive dyspnea, chronic sneezing, persistent nasal or oculonasal discharge, coughing (often non-productive), exercise intolerance, and lethargy. Clinical signs often remain subtle until lung function is significantly compromised.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen therapy for respiratory compromise; opioids (buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV/IM/SC q6–8h) for pain relief; NSAIDs (piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID) for inflammation and mild antineoplastic benefit.
Causative:: Surgical resection (lobectomy) is the treatment of choice for solitary, resectable tumors. Chemotherapy options include Doxorubicin (30 mg/m² IV q3w, 4–6 cycles, dogs and cats) or Cisplatin (60 mg/m² IV q3–4w, dogs only, with aggressive IV diuresis).
Supportive:: Nutritional support, staged imaging for monitoring, and long-term quality-of-life management. Prognosis is guarded to poor, depending on resectability and metastatic spread.

Pulmonary LymphomaA malignant lymphoproliferative disease involving lung parenchyma, bronchi, or mediastinal structures. It may be primary (rare) or secondary to multicentric lymphoma. Diagnosis is confirmed by imaging and cytology or histopathology.
Symptoms:: Progressive dyspnea, coughing, lethargy, weight loss, tachypnea, and reduced exercise tolerance. In cats, pleural effusion is also common and may cause acute respiratory distress.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Oxygen therapy for respiratory distress, thoracocentesis if pleural effusion is present, antiemetics and GI protectants for chemotherapy-induced side effects.
Causative:: Chemotherapy is the treatment of choice.
  - CHOP-based regimen (Dogs & Cats):
    • Vincristine: 0.5–0.7 mg/m² IV weekly (dogs), 0.5 mg/m² IV weekly (cats)
    • Cyclophosphamide: 200–250 mg/m² PO or IV every 3 weeks
    • Doxorubicin: 30 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks (dogs); 1 mg/kg IV (cats)
    • Prednisolone: 2 mg/kg PO SID, taper over weeks
  - Alternative or adjunct agents:
    • Epirubicin: 3 mg/m² slow IV q3w after premedication with chlorpheniramine (0.5 mg/kg IM) or dexamethasone (0.1 mg/kg IV)
    • Dactinomycin: 0.75–1.0 mg/m² IV q3w (as a doxorubicin substitute)
Supportive:: Nutritional support, monitoring via thoracic imaging, and long-term quality-of-life care. Prognosis is variable—multicentric or mediastinal lymphoma responds better to chemotherapy than primary pulmonary forms, which carry a guarded prognosis..

Esophageal Foreign Body An obstructive condition where ingested material becomes lodged in the esophagus, commonly at anatomical narrowing sites such as the thoracic inlet, base of the heart, or diaphragm. More common in dogs than cats.
Symptoms:: Lethargy, anorexia, ptyalism, exaggerated swallowing, gagging, retching, regurgitation, restlessness, tachypnea, coughing, and signs of aspiration pneumonia (dyspnea, fever). Severe cases may result in choking or esophageal rupture.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Oxygen therapy if aspiration pneumonia is present, antibiotics for secondary infection, and analgesics if significant discomfort occurs.
Causative:: Prompt removal of the foreign body is essential.
- Endoscopic removal (preferred): Flexible or rigid endoscopy under general anesthesia using grasping forceps, alligator forceps, or Foley catheter to push object into the stomach if safe.
- Surgical removal: Lateral thoracotomy if endoscopy fails or if perforation is suspected.
Supportive:: Sucralfate 0.5–1 g PO TID for 7–10 days to protect esophageal mucosa; Omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO SID for acid suppression; Soft food diet or feeding tube if severe esophagitis; Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID) if aspiration pneumonia or esophagitis is suspected.
Prognosis depends on early intervention. Monitor for complications such as esophageal stricture or aspiration pneumonia after removal.

Osteochondrosis & Osteochondritis Dissecans (OCD) A developmental orthopedic disease seen in young, large-breed dogs (4–7 months), caused by failure of endochondral ossification, leading to thickened, necrotic cartilage and dissecting lesions. Common sites include shoulder, elbow, stifle, and hock. Influenced by genetics, rapid growth, trauma, and overnutrition.
Symptoms:: Intermittent or unilateral lameness, joint pain, stiffness after rest, worsening with exercise, and discomfort on joint manipulation. Symptoms usually become evident during growth spurts.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Pain control with NSAIDs such as Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only, short-term), and Gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO BID–TID if neuropathic pain is suspected.
Causative:: Surgical removal of cartilage flap and curettage of subchondral bone via Arthroscopy or Arthrotomy in moderate to severe cases.
Supportive:: Exercise restriction (strict cage rest or leash walks for 4–6 weeks), weight management to maintain lean body condition, joint supplements (Glucosamine 20 mg/kg + Chondroitin 15 mg/kg PO SID), and post-op rehabilitation/physical therapy for 4–6 weeks.
Early surgical intervention for clinically significant lesions offers the best prognosis, particularly in shoulder OCD. Delay in treatment may lead to secondary degenerative joint disease.

Hypokalemia (Decreased Potassium Level) A metabolic condition defined as serum potassium concentration below 3.5 mEq/L. It is commonly associated with chronic kidney disease, prolonged anorexia, diuretic use, gastrointestinal losses, or inadequate intake. Particularly prevalent in older cats with Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD).
Symptoms:: Polyuria, polydipsia, generalized muscle weakness, ventroflexion of the neck (especially in cats), lethargy, constipation, and in severe cases, metabolic collapse.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Oral potassium supplementation in mild to moderate cases (e.g., Potassium Gluconate 2–4 mEq/animal PO BID with food). Monitor serum potassium weekly.
Causative:: Intravenous potassium correction in moderate to severe cases using Potassium Chloride (KCl) added to IV fluids (20–60 mEq/L). Administer slowly, not exceeding 0.5 mEq/kg/hr, with continuous ECG monitoring. Correct underlying causes such as CKD, GI loss, or diuretic-induced depletion.
Supportive:: Dietary management with renal-friendly, potassium-enriched diets; management of concurrent CKD or other primary disorders; fluid therapy as indicated for stabilization.
Rapid IV correction is dangerous and may lead to fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Oral supplementation is preferred whenever feasible. Ventroflexion typically resolves once potassium levels normalize.

Enteric Campylobacteriosis A zoonotic bacterial enteritis caused primarily by Campylobacter jejuni, a curved gram-negative rod. Other species include C. upsaliensis and C. lari. It primarily affects young or immunocompromised animals and is often transmitted via fecal–oral contact or contaminated environments.
Symptoms:: Acute to chronic diarrhea (watery, bloody, mucoid, bile-streaked, or melena), vomiting, mild fever, dehydration, weight loss, and in some cases intermittent diarrhea without systemic illness.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.3–0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID for intestinal spasms. Antiemetics as needed for vomiting.
Causative:: Targeted antimicrobial therapy:
- Erythromycin: 10–15 mg/kg PO TID × 7–10 days (first-line choice).
- Doxycycline: 5 mg/kg PO BID × 7 days (alternative, esp. in cats).
- Cephalexin (2nd gen): 20–30 mg/kg PO BID (effective in some cases).
Note: Avoid routine fluoroquinolones (resistance risk). In cats, enrofloxacin must not exceed 5 mg/kg/day due to retinal toxicity.
Supportive:: Fluid therapy (oral/IV depending on dehydration severity), probiotics to help restore GI flora, nutritional support as tolerated. Strict hygiene and environmental sanitation to reduce zoonotic risk.
Campylobacter is zoonotic. Proper sanitation and recheck fecal PCR/culture in persistent cases are recommended to confirm clearance.

Nutritional Myopathy A degenerative muscle disease caused by deficiency of selenium and/or vitamin E, leading to oxidative damage of muscle fibers. It commonly affects rapidly growing animals or those with poor nutrition, resulting in profound muscle weakness and potential respiratory compromise.
Symptoms:: Generalized or localized weakness, stiff gait (especially after rest), reluctance to exercise, muscle atrophy (limbs/spine), fine twitching, involuntary movements, difficulty standing or walking, dysphagia, regurgitation/aspiration pneumonia, exercise intolerance, lethargy, rapid breathing, and coughing.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Oxygen therapy for respiratory distress, assisted feeding, and management of aspiration pneumonia (antibiotics and supportive care as indicated).
Causative:: Nutritional supplementation with:
- Selenium: 0.1–0.3 mg/kg PO SID × 4–6 weeks (adjust based on deficiency severity).
- Vitamin E: 10–15 IU/kg PO SID, continued for several months.
Supportive:: Rest and reduced physical exertion, careful nutritional management with balanced diet, monitoring for cardiac or respiratory complications.
Early diagnosis and supplementation significantly improve prognosis; untreated cases may progress to severe muscle degeneration and respiratory failure.

Laryngeal Collapse A progressive upper airway disorder characterized by weakening and inward collapse of laryngeal cartilages, most commonly secondary to chronic upper airway obstruction (e.g., brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome) or direct trauma. It progresses in stages, leading to increasing airway compromise.
Symptoms: Progressive dyspnea, snoring, loud inspiratory stridor, exercise intolerance, cyanosis, and possible syncope. Signs worsen with excitement, stress, or heat exposure.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy during acute crises, sedation to reduce stress, cooling in heat-exacerbated cases. Butorphanol (0.2–0.4 mg/kg IM or IV) for stress and airway effort reduction.
Causative:
- Stage I (everted saccules): Transoral sacculectomy with long-handled scissors under GA.
- Stage II (medial deviation of cuneiform processes): Unilateral aryepiglottic fold resection or partial arytenoidectomy.
- Stage III (collapse of corniculate processes): Permanent tracheostomy for long-term airway patency.
Supportive: Prednisolone (0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID, short-term) to reduce inflammation and edema, strict weight management, stress minimization, careful monitoring post-surgery, and client education on progressive nature of disease.
Early surgical intervention in brachycephalic airway disease improves prognosis. Advanced cases often require referral to a specialist surgeon. Weight and environmental management can slow progression.

Canine Infectious Respiratory Disease (CIRD) A highly contagious respiratory disease complex (commonly known as kennel cough) caused by multiple pathogens including Bordetella bronchiseptica, canine parainfluenza virus, and canine adenovirus-2. Frequently seen in dogs exposed to kennels, shelters, or dog parks. Typically self-limiting but may progress to bronchopneumonia in young, immunocompromised, or co-infected dogs.
Symptoms: Dry “goose-honking” cough, gagging, retching, nasal discharge, lethargy, and occasional fever. Severe cases may show dyspnea, pneumonia, or systemic illness.
Treatment Symptomatic:
- Butorphanol: 0.2–0.4 mg/kg PO or IM BID (if cough is nonproductive and distressing).
- Prednisolone: 0.5 mg/kg PO SID for 3–5 days (short-term only, to reduce airway inflammation).
- Ensure hydration, stress reduction, and strict isolation to prevent transmission.
Causative:
- Doxycycline: 5 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days (first-line against Bordetella bronchiseptica).
- Amoxicillin-Clavulanate: 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID (for mixed or secondary bacterial infections).
- Nebulized Gentamicin: 5 mg diluted in 3–5 mL saline, 10–15 min BID for 5–7 days (for refractory cases; monitor for bronchospasm).
Supportive:
- Nebulization with saline to improve airway clearance.
- Nutritional support and maintaining a warm, stress-free environment.
- Vaccination (intranasal/oral Bordetella & parainfluenza) to reduce incidence and severity in at-risk dogs.
Most cases resolve within 7–14 days. Early treatment prevents progression to pneumonia. Follow-up is essential if clinical signs worsen or persist.

Canine Scabies (Sarcoptic Mange) A highly contagious parasitic skin disease caused by Sarcoptes scabiei var. canis. It is zoonotic and spreads rapidly among in-contact animals. Transmission occurs via direct contact or contaminated environments.
Symptoms: Intense pruritus, alopecia, erythema, papules, crusting on ears, elbows, hocks, and ventral abdomen. Secondary pyoderma and self-trauma are frequent due to severe scratching.
Treatment Symptomatic:
- Antihistamines (Diphenhydramine: 2–4 mg/kg PO TID) to reduce pruritus.
- Medicated shampoos (chlorhexidine or benzoyl peroxide) for secondary bacterial infections.
Causative:
- Selamectin: 6–12 mg/kg topical once monthly.
- Ivermectin: 0.2–0.3 mg/kg SC or PO weekly × 4 (off-label).
- Alternative: Milbemycin oxime 2 mg/kg PO weekly × 4.
Supportive:
- Treat all in-contact animals simultaneously.
- Use Elizabethan collar to prevent self-trauma.
- Maintain strict environmental hygiene to avoid reinfestation.
Most dogs improve within 2–4 weeks of therapy. Zoonotic transmission to humans usually causes transient pruritic lesions that resolve after animal treatment.

Cutaneous Larval Migrans A zoonotic skin condition caused by migrating hookworm larvae (commonly Ancylostoma braziliense or Ancylostoma caninum) penetrating the epidermis. Infection occurs via contact with contaminated soil or sand.
Symptoms: Pruritic, serpiginous, erythematous skin lesions; inflammation and scratching due to migrating larvae. Lesions often appear on paws, abdomen, or ventral thorax.
Treatment Symptomatic:
- Antihistamines (Diphenhydramine 2–4 mg/kg PO TID) to reduce pruritus and inflammation.
Causative:
- Eliminate larvae via anthelmintics and prevent further exposure to contaminated environments.
Supportive:
- Environmental hygiene: Remove or treat contaminated soil/sand.
- Restrict animal access to areas with high larval load.
Specific:
- Ivermectin: 0.2 mg/kg SC once; repeat in 7 days if needed.
- OR Albendazole: 25–50 mg/kg/day PO for 2–3 days.
Most lesions resolve within 1–2 weeks after treatment; secondary bacterial infection may require topical care.

NSAID Toxicity (Melena)NSAID-induced gastric or duodenal ulceration causing gastrointestinal bleeding.
Symptoms:: Black tarry feces (melena), anorexia, vomiting, abdominal pain, lethargy, and dehydration. Severe cases may progress to anemia or perforation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: IV fluids to maintain hydration and gastroprotectants to reduce mucosal damage.
Causative:: Immediate discontinuation of NSAID therapy. Monitor for complications such as perforation, anemia, or shock.
Supportive:: Bland, easily digestible diet. Monitor PCV/TP and hydration status.
Specific:: Sucralfate 0.5–1 g PO TID; Omeprazole 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID; Misoprostol 2–5 µg/kg PO BID.

Glucocorticoid Toxicity (Melena)GI ulceration and systemic effects caused by chronic or high-dose glucocorticoid exposure.
Symptoms:: Melena, weakness, anorexia, polyuria/polydipsia, immunosuppression, and possible anemia. Severe cases may result in GI perforation or sepsis.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Gastroprotectants and IV fluids if dehydrated.
Causative:: Discontinue glucocorticoids with gradual taper if used long-term to avoid Addisonian crisis.
Supportive:: Bland, low-fat diet; monitor for secondary infections.
Specific:: Omeprazole 0.7 mg/kg PO SID; Sucralfate 1 g PO TID; Misoprostol 2 µg/kg PO BID (especially if NSAIDs used concurrently).

Liver Failure (Melena)Advanced hepatic dysfunction leading to gastrointestinal bleeding and systemic complications.
Symptoms:: Melena, icterus, coagulopathy, ascites, lethargy, and possible hepatic encephalopathy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Control GI bleeding, provide IV fluids, and stabilize clinical signs.
Causative:: Identify and treat underlying liver disease (infectious, toxic, metabolic, or neoplastic).
Supportive:: Hepatic diet, vitamin supplementation, antioxidants, and careful monitoring of clotting status.
Specific:: Lactulose 0.5 mL/kg PO TID; SAMe 18–20 mg/kg PO SID; Vitamin K1 2.5 mg/kg SC or PO SID.

Gastrointestinal Ischemia (Melena)Compromised blood supply to the gastrointestinal tract, often due to volvulus or intussusception, resulting in necrosis and bleeding.
Symptoms:: Melena, vomiting, severe abdominal pain, weakness, and signs of shock.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Aggressive IV fluids (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s 60–90 mL/kg/day), oxygen therapy, and pain management (Methadone 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV).
Causative:: Emergency surgical correction of volvulus or intussusception.
Supportive:: Post-operative intensive care, nutritional support, and monitoring for sepsis.
Specific:: Broad-spectrum antibiotics: Ampicillin 20–30 mg/kg IV TID or Cefazolin 20 mg/kg IV TID.

Feline TuberculosisA rare zoonotic disease caused by Mycobacterium bovis or Mycobacterium microti, leading to systemic granulomatous infection.
Symptoms:: Progressive dyspnea, chronic soft cough, dysphagia, hypersalivation, weight loss, anemia, vomiting, lymphadenopathy, and non-healing granulomatous skin lesions.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Nutritional support, fluid therapy, and careful monitoring of hepatic function during therapy.
Causative:: Long-term antimycobacterial drug therapy to target mycobacterial infection.
Supportive:: Management of secondary infections, strict isolation due to zoonotic risk, and prolonged treatment compliance.
Specific:: Isoniazid 10 mg/kg PO SID; Rifampin 10–15 mg/kg PO SID; Ethambutol 15–25 mg/kg PO SID; Streptomycin 20–30 mg/kg IM 2–3 times per week (rarely used due to nephrotoxicity).
Treatment duration is a minimum of 6 months. Due to zoonotic potential and drug toxicity, euthanasia may be considered in advanced or resistant cases. Public health authorities must be notified.

Canine Reactive Histiocytic DiseasesAn immune-mediated disorder presenting with cutaneous and systemic nodules that may affect multiple organs.
Symptoms:: Multiple cutaneous and subcutaneous nodules on the head, neck, perineum, scrotum, and limbs. Ulcerations, secondary skin infections, and systemic organ involvement (lymph nodes, spleen, lungs, liver) may occur.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Management of secondary skin infections with antibiotics and supportive wound care.
Causative:: Immunosuppressive therapy to reduce histiocytic proliferation and inflammation.
Supportive:: Tetracycline and niacinamide 250–500 mg PO TID for adjunctive management.
Specific:: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID initially with tapering maintenance; Azathioprine (Imuran) 2 mg/kg PO SID; Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO SID.

Canine Mammary AdenocarcinomaA malignant neoplasm of the mammary glands, most often seen in intact or late-spayed females.
Symptoms:: Melena (black tarry feces), dyspnea, nasal discharge, sneezing, and regional lymphadenopathy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Palliative care to relieve pain and secondary complications.
Causative:: Definitive treatment involves surgical excision of tumors, often combined with chemotherapy.
Supportive:: Referral to a veterinary oncologist for long-term management and monitoring of metastasis.
Specific:: Carboplatin 0.12 mg/kg/m² IV every 3–4 weeks; Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID.

Canine Gastrointestinal LymphomaA malignant lymphoproliferative disorder affecting the gastrointestinal tract with a high risk of GI bleeding.
Symptoms:: Melena (black tarry feces), vomiting, weight loss, anorexia, and chronic diarrhea.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive fluid therapy, antiemetics, and nutritional support.
Causative:: Multidrug chemotherapy protocols to target neoplastic lymphocytes.
Supportive:: Oncologist-supervised care, supportive medications for nausea and anorexia.
Specific:: Vincristine, Cyclophosphamide, Dactinomycin; Doxorubicin 30 mg/m² IV on days 1–3 every 4 weeks; or Epirubicin 3 mg/m² slow IV every 3 weeks (after premedication with Chlorphenamine or Dexamethasone).

Gastrointestinal Foreign BodyA potentially life-threatening obstruction in the gastrointestinal tract causing pain and GI bleeding.
Symptoms:: Abdominal pain, vomiting, anorexia, and melena (black tarry feces).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management with agents such as Pregabalin 4 mg/kg PO BID.
Causative:: Surgical removal of the foreign body to relieve obstruction.
Supportive:: IV fluids, electrolyte correction, and post-operative nutritional support.
Specific:: Prompt surgical or endoscopic removal of the obstruction, depending on location and severity.

Pseudocyesis (False Pregnancy)A hormonal disorder in intact bitches that mimics pregnancy signs post-estrus.
Symptoms:: Enlarged mammary glands with fluid secretion, nesting behavior, maternal behavior toward objects, and occasional aggression.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Avoid manual expression of mammary glands to prevent lactation stimulation.
Causative:: Hormonal therapy to suppress prolactin and resolve false pregnancy signs.
Supportive:: Behavioral calming with Diazepam when needed; environmental management to reduce nesting behaviors.
Specific:: Cabergoline 3 μg/kg PO SID for 5–10 days; Bromocriptine 30 μg/kg PO SID for 10–14 days; Megestrol acetate 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID for 8 days; Testosterone cypionate 1 mg/kg IM (for suppression of lactation).

Botryomycosis in CatsA chronic bacterial infection characterized by granulomatous lesions and abscess formation, often due to opportunistic pathogens.
Symptoms:: Abscesses on the face, limbs, or tail base; anorexia, depression, lameness, regional lymphadenopathy, purulent drainage, stiffness, or paralysis in severe cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management and wound care to improve comfort.
Causative:: Antimicrobial therapy directed against bacterial pathogens; culture and sensitivity recommended for targeted treatment.
Supportive:: Surgical drainage and flushing with hydrogen peroxide; regular wound hygiene.
Specific:: Penicillin V; Clindamycin 5–10 mg/kg PO BID; Metronidazole 15 mg/kg PO BID (for anaerobic coverage).

Botryomycosis in DogsA chronic bacterial infection leading to granulomatous inflammation and abscess formation, often secondary to wounds or opportunistic pathogens.
Symptoms:: Abscesses on the face, legs, back, and tail base; anorexia, depression, regional lymphadenopathy, purulent white discharge, red-brown exudate after lancing, lameness, stiffness, or paralysis.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain control and local wound care to improve comfort.
Causative:: Systemic antibiotic therapy based on culture and sensitivity to eliminate infection.
Supportive:: Surgical drainage and flushing with hydrogen peroxide; regular wound cleaning and monitoring.
Specific:: Penicillin V; Clindamycin 5–10 mg/kg PO BID; Metronidazole 15 mg/kg PO BID (for anaerobic coverage).

Feline HyperadrenocorticismA rare endocrine disorder in middle-aged to older cats, usually pituitary-dependent, resulting from chronic glucocorticoid excess.
Symptoms:: Polyphagia, muscle weakness, obesity, skin fragility with self-inflicted wounds, and abdominal enlargement ("pot belly").
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Wound care for fragile skin; supportive management of diabetes mellitus if concurrent.
Causative:: Control cortisol overproduction via medical or surgical intervention.
Supportive:: Nutritional support, monitoring of liver enzymes and glucose levels, stress reduction.
Specific:: Trilostane 2–12 mg/kg PO with food; Mitotane 20–50 mg/kg/day for 10 days (discontinue if GI signs occur); Ketoconazole 10 mg/kg PO BID; Dexamethasone 0.12 mg/kg IM/SC/PO SID or Prednisolone 0.15–0.25 mg/kg/day. Adrenalectomy or radiation therapy may be considered in selected cases.

Canine Hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing's Disease)A chronic endocrine disorder resulting from prolonged overproduction of glucocorticoids, most often due to pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism or adrenal tumors. Common in middle-aged to older dogs.
Symptoms:: Excessive thirst, polyuria, urination indoors, panting, pot-bellied appearance, polydipsia, polyphagia, muscle weakness, difficulty climbing stairs, persistent muscle contractions.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care for weakness and panting; dietary adjustments to maintain ideal body weight.
Causative:: Trilostane 6 mg/kg PO with food; Mitotane 30 mg/kg/day PO × 10 days; Ketoconazole 10 mg/kg PO q12h × 14 days; Selegiline hydrochloride 1 mg/kg PO daily; surgical adrenalectomy in adrenal tumor cases.
Supportive:: Prednisolone 0.2 mg/kg/day PO if adrenal suppression occurs during therapy; regular monitoring of ACTH stimulation test results to guide dosing.

Pituitary-Dependent Hyperadrenocorticism (PDH) The most common form of Cushing’s disease in dogs (85–90%), caused by a functional pituitary adenoma secreting excess ACTH, leading to bilateral adrenal hyperplasia and cortisol overproduction. Less common in cats.
Symptoms: Polyuria, polydipsia, house soiling, polyphagia, pot-bellied appearance, excessive panting, stiff gait, aimless wandering, head pressing, circling, blindness, seizures.
Treatment Symptomatic: Manage concurrent hypertension, diabetes mellitus, or infections if present.
Causative: Trilostane 4 mg/kg PO SID with food (dogs) or 1 mg/kg/day (cats) — preferred for safety and efficacy.
Alternative options: Mitotane 50 mg/kg/week PO (effective in dogs, not cats); Selegiline hydrochloride 1 mg/kg/day PO; Ketoconazole 10 mg/kg PO BID ×14 days (less effective, reserve use for refractory cases).
Supportive: Monitor cortisol levels with ACTH stimulation tests or pre-pill cortisol assays; adjust dosing to avoid iatrogenic hypoadrenocorticism.
Prognosis is fair to good with appropriate medical management, though lifelong therapy and monitoring are required. Surgical options (hypophysectomy, radiation) are rarely performed but may be curative in specialized centers.

Adrenal-Dependent Hyperadrenocorticism (ADH) A form of Cushing’s syndrome caused by an adrenal cortical tumor autonomously secreting cortisol. It is more common in female dogs and less frequent in cats.
Symptoms: Polyuria, polydipsia, house soiling, polyphagia, pot-bellied appearance, excessive panting, stiff gait, aimless wandering, head pressing, circling, blindness, seizures.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilization of concurrent hypertension, diabetes mellitus, or thromboembolic complications if present.
Causative: Unilateral adrenalectomy is curative in dogs with resectable tumors; bilateral adrenalectomy may be indicated in cats. Medical therapy with Mitotane 50–75 mg/kg/day PO (cytotoxic) or Trilostane 2–6 mg/kg/day PO with food (safer, enzyme inhibitor).
Supportive: Monitor electrolytes, cortisol levels, and adjust medications based on ACTH stimulation or cortisol assays. Provide glucocorticoid supplementation perioperatively to avoid Addisonian crisis.
Prognosis depends on tumor resectability and metastasis. Dogs treated surgically may have good long-term outcomes; cats respond better to medical therapy but prognosis remains guarded.

Iatrogenic HyperadrenocorticismCushingoid symptoms caused by chronic administration of exogenous glucocorticoids (oral, injectable, or topical), leading to suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
Symptoms: Bilateral truncal alopecia, thin fragile skin, hyperpigmentation, bruising, calcinosis cutis, secondary pyoderma, and recurrent dermatitis.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Supportive care for skin lesions and monitoring for secondary infections.
Causative: Gradual tapering of all corticosteroid medications to prevent Addisonian crisis; topical DMSO applied as a thin film SID may help resolve calcinosis cutis.
Supportive: Monthly serum calcium checks in cases with severe calcinosis to detect hypercalcemia. Long-term recovery of adrenal function may take months.

Spontaneous Hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing’s Disease)An endocrine disorder caused by excessive production of glucocorticoids, either pituitary-dependent (PDH) or adrenal-dependent (ADH), leading to systemic and dermatologic changes in dogs.
Symptoms: Bilateral trunk alopecia, hyperpigmentation, calcinosis cutis, comedones, fragile skin, easy bruising, thin coat, secondary pyoderma, dermatitis, and demodicosis. Polyuria, polydipsia, panting, and pot-bellied appearance may also be observed.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Topical dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) SID for skin lesions, management of secondary infections, and monitoring for metabolic complications.
Causative: Mitotane 50 mg/kg PO every 4 days for adrenal cytotoxic therapy; Trilostane 6 mg/kg PO once daily for pituitary-dependent cases; Ketoconazole as an alternative for mild or refractory cases. Surgical adrenalectomy for unilateral adrenal tumors; radiation therapy for pituitary masses.
Supportive: Regular monitoring of electrolytes, liver function, and clinical signs; management of concurrent skin infections or endocrinopathies.
Prognosis: Good with appropriate therapy, though long-term monitoring is required to prevent recurrence or complications.

Renal Insufficiency, Renal FailureA progressive loss of kidney function leading to impaired filtration and toxin accumulation in dogs and cats.
Symptoms: Polyuria, polydipsia, melena (black tarry feces), anorexia, weight loss, vomiting, lethargy, dehydration, elevated BUN and creatinine.
TreatmentSymptomatic: IV fluids for rehydration and correction of electrolyte imbalances; antiemetics and gastroprotectants for vomiting and uremic gastritis.
Causative: Mannitol 0.4 g/kg IV over 5–10 minutes to promote diuresis if oliguric; Benazepril 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO SID as an ACE inhibitor to reduce proteinuria and protect renal function.
Supportive: Renal diet with controlled protein and phosphorus, potassium supplementation if hypokalemic, regular monitoring of renal values and electrolytes.
Prognosis: Variable depending on stage and response to therapy; chronic cases require long-term management.

PneumothoraxA life-threatening condition caused by accumulation of air in the pleural space leading to lung collapse and impaired ventilation.
Symptoms: Exercise intolerance, respiratory distress, cyanosis, extended head and neck posture, elbow abduction, pale mucous membranes, weak peripheral pulses, and recumbency. Often secondary to trauma, lung rupture, or gas-producing infections.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Oxygen therapy, stabilization, and careful monitoring of respiratory effort.
Causative: Cefixime 12.5 mg/kg PO BID for 10 days if infection is suspected; surgical lobectomy for irreparable lung lesions or bullae.
Supportive: Tube thoracostomy with continuous drainage for severe dyspnea; intermittent thoracocentesis as needed; analgesia and fluid support.
Prognosis: Good with prompt treatment; recurrent or severe cases may require surgery.

Nasal Mite InfestationAn infestation caused by nasal mites (Pneumonyssoides caninum) leading to irritation and upper respiratory signs in dogs.
Symptoms: Sneezing, nasal discharge, epistaxis, nasal pruritus, and reverse sneezing episodes.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Manual removal if visible in the nasal cavity.
Causative: High-dose Ivermectin 800 mcg/kg SC as a single dose; topical Selamectin 6–24 mg/kg every 2 weeks for 3 doses; or extra-label Milbemycin 1 mg/kg PO every 10 days for 3 doses.
Supportive: Monitor for secondary rhinitis; antihistamines or NSAIDs if inflammation persists.
Prognosis: Excellent with appropriate therapy.

Apical AbscessA localized infection at or around the tooth apex, commonly associated with periodontal disease or dental fractures.
Symptoms: Fever, reluctance to chew, inappetence, lethargy, halitosis, facial lymphadenitis, localized swelling, nasal discharge, and regional lymphadenopathy.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Pain management with Carprofen or Tramadol; soft food for several days post-treatment.
Causative: Tooth extraction with curettage of the infected site; drainage and exploration of adjacent fistulas if present.
Supportive: Systemic antibiotics (e.g., Clindamycin, Amoxicillin-clavulanate) for 7–14 days; oral rinses to reduce bacterial load.
Prognosis: Good with complete removal of the infection source.

Canine Meningeal PolyarteritisA rare immune-mediated vasculitis of the meningeal arteries seen in young Beagles, also known as "Beagle pain syndrome."
Symptoms: Acute onset of profound neck pain, depression, anorexia, fever, facial paralysis, torticollis, ataxia, incoordination, reduced reflexes, and absent gag reflex.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Analgesics and supportive care to manage discomfort.
Causative: Immunosuppressive therapy with Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID tapered gradually; adjunctive Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID or Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO SID in refractory cases.
Supportive: Long-term monitoring for relapses; gradual steroid taper to minimize recurrence.
Prognosis: Variable—good with sustained immunosuppression, but relapses are common.

Acute Heart FailureRapid-onset cardiac decompensation resulting in inadequate perfusion and pulmonary congestion.
Symptoms: Sinus tachycardia, dyspnea, depression, weakness, vomiting, anorexia, cold extremities, jugular distention.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Cage rest and oxygen therapy.
Causative: Dopamine 5–10 μg/kg/min IV infusion to improve contractility.
Supportive: Furosemide 2–4 mg/kg IV or IM q1–4h for diuresis; monitor electrolytes and renal function.
Prognosis: Guarded, depends on underlying etiology and rapid stabilization.

Chronic Heart FailureLong-standing cardiac insufficiency leading to progressive exercise intolerance and congestion.
Symptoms: Sinus tachycardia, dyspnea, depression, cold extremities, jugular pulsation, murmurs, diastolic gallops, thyroid nodule (in cats).
TreatmentSymptomatic: Oxygen therapy during decompensations.
Causative: Dobutamine IV if in crisis; Carvedilol 0.05–0.1 mg/kg PO BID; Digoxin 4–7 μg/kg PO BID to improve contractility.
Supportive: Furosemide 1–5 mg/kg PO q12–24h; Hydralazine 1 mg/kg PO BID for afterload reduction; dietary sodium restriction.
Prognosis: Fair with medical management, variable depending on disease stage.

Gastric Outlet ObstructionA condition impairing gastric emptying, often due to foreign body, neoplasia, or pyloric hypertrophy.
Symptoms: Vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, abdominal discomfort, dehydration.
TreatmentSymptomatic: IV fluid therapy and electrolyte correction before anesthesia.
Causative: Endoscopic removal of foreign bodies; surgical resection if caused by neoplasia or pyloric hypertrophy.
Supportive: Analgesia and antibiotics post-surgery; gradual reintroduction of soft food diet.
Prognosis: Good with timely foreign body removal; guarded if neoplastic.

Gallbladder MucoceleAn accumulation of inspissated bile and mucus within the gallbladder, risking rupture and peritonitis.
Symptoms: Often asymptomatic; may present with vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, icterus, abdominal pain, fever, or jaundice.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Stabilization with fluids and analgesics.
Causative: Asymptomatic: Ursodeoxycholic acid 10–15 mg/kg PO SID, antioxidants (e.g., S-adenosylmethionine), and broad-spectrum antibiotics (Amoxicillin-clavulanate, Cephalexin). Symptomatic: surgical cholecystectomy is the treatment of choice.
Supportive: Post-surgical monitoring for bile peritonitis; dietary fat restriction.
Prognosis: Excellent if treated early; poor if rupture occurs.

Feline TularemiaA zoonotic bacterial infection caused by Francisella tularensis, often transmitted through tick bites or ingestion of infected prey.
Symptoms:: Oral ulcers, fever, depression, generalized lymphadenomegaly, hepatosplenomegaly, anorexia, and lethargy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: IV fluids, analgesia, and nutritional support as needed.
Causative:: Gentamicin 5–8 mg/kg IV or IM SID for 7–10 days (preferred).
Alternative:: Ciprofloxacin or Norfloxacin 10–15 mg/kg PO BID if aminoglycosides are contraindicated.
Supportive:: Close monitoring, early intervention, and strict zoonotic precautions due to human health risk.

Canine TularemiaA zoonotic bacterial infection caused by Francisella tularensis, usually transmitted via ticks or ingestion of infected prey.
Symptoms:: Anorexia, lethargy, listlessness, shivering, fever; zoonotic risk to humans.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antipyretic and analgesic care; antiemetics as needed (e.g., maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID); maintain hydration and nutrition.
Causative:: Gentamicin 5–10 mg/kg IV/IM SID for 7–10 days; alternatives: ciprofloxacin 10–15 mg/kg PO BID or norfloxacin 10–15 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive:: Strict isolation and zoonotic precautions; monitor vitals and organ function.

Canine PlagueA zoonotic infection caused by Yersinia pestis, transmitted by fleas or contact with infected rodents.
Symptoms:: Fever, anorexia, mandibular/cervical lymphadenomegaly with abscessation, purulent cervical lesions, coughing, lethargy; rapid progression if untreated.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen if respiratory distress; analgesia; antipyretics; IV fluids to correct dehydration and shock.
Causative:: Gentamicin 5 mg/kg IM/IV BID plus doxycycline 5–10 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days.
Supportive:: Strict isolation, flea control, barrier nursing, and close monitoring for sepsis or respiratory compromise.

Bubonic Plague in CatsA zoonotic bacterial infection caused by Yersinia pestis, characterized by swollen lymph nodes and systemic illness.
Symptoms:: High temperature (40.6–41.2 °C), dehydration, lymphadenomegaly, hyperesthesia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antipyretics for fever, fluid therapy for dehydration, analgesics for hyperesthesia.
Causative:: Gentamicin alone or combined with doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID with food.
Supportive:: Strict isolation due to zoonotic risk, nutritional support, monitoring of vital signs.

Septicemic Plague in CatsA severe systemic form of plague caused by Yersinia pestis, rapidly progressive and life-threatening.
Symptoms:: Fever, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, tachycardia, weak pulse, hypotension, cold extremities.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Fluid resuscitation for hypotension, antiemetics for vomiting, oxygen therapy if needed.
Causative:: Gentamicin alone or with doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID with food.
Supportive:: Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.1 mL/kg IV/IM BID or 0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID for colic and smooth muscle spasm; strict isolation and intensive monitoring.

Glanders in Dogs and CatsA contagious zoonotic disease caused by Burkholderia mallei, presenting as localized cutaneous lesions (farcy), acute septicemia, or pneumonia.
Symptoms:: Nodular cutaneous lesions with ulceration, nasal discharge, coughing, fever, dyspnea, septicemia, or pneumonia depending on the form of disease.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Fluid therapy, antipyretics for fever, oxygen supplementation in respiratory cases, wound care for cutaneous lesions.
Causative:: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID with food; Trimethoprim-sulfonamides; Ceftazidime; Ciprofloxacin; Levofloxacin; Rifampin (based on culture and sensitivity).
Supportive:: Bromhexine 8 mg/dog IM BID or 2 mg PO BID to reduce respiratory secretions; strict isolation and monitoring due to zoonotic risk.

Pneumonic Plague in CatsA severe and highly contagious form of plague caused by Yersinia pestis, affecting the respiratory system and oral cavity.
Symptoms:: Ocular discharge, vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, weight loss, poor haircoat, swollen tongue, tonsillar enlargement, necrotic stomatitis, facial ulceration, abdominal distension.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Topical application of Triamcinolone acetonide 1% dental paste (Generlog Oral) to oral lesions; fluid therapy and nutritional support.
Causative:: Gentamicin alone or combined with doxycycline (based on severity and tolerance).
Supportive:: Analgesics for oral pain, broad-spectrum antibiotics for secondary infections, strict isolation due to zoonotic potential.

Aspergillosis in DogsA fungal infection caused by Aspergillus spp., primarily affecting the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses; can disseminate in immunocompromised dogs.
Symptoms:: Unilateral nasal discharge, sneezing, facial pain or swelling, and occasionally uveitis.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Analgesia and supportive fluid therapy to maintain hydration and comfort.
Causative:: Topical clotrimazole infusion under anesthesia for localized disease; systemic therapy with itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO SID, voriconazole 6–8 mg/kg PO BID, or amphotericin B lipid complex 0.5–1 mg/kg IV q48h for disseminated cases.
Supportive:: Treatment duration 4–8 weeks with monitoring of liver enzymes during systemic antifungal use.

Subcutaneous Abscesses and CellulitisA localized bacterial infection of the subcutaneous tissue, often secondary to wounds, bites, or foreign bodies.
Symptoms:: Painful skin swelling, erythema, necrosis, draining tracts, lethargy, and anorexia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management and wound care to reduce discomfort.
Causative:: Surgical lancing and drainage; debridement and flushing with chlorhexidine or povidone-iodine. Initiate empirical antibiotics such as amoxicillin-clavulanate 15–22 mg/kg PO BID or clindamycin 5.5 mg/kg PO BID; adjust based on culture and sensitivity results.
Supportive:: Nutritional support and monitoring for systemic spread of infection.

Eosinophilic MeningoencephalitisAn immune-mediated inflammatory condition affecting the brain and meninges, often of unknown etiology.
Symptoms:: Behavior changes, head pressing, circling, seizures, facial paralysis, ataxia, and blindness.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Anticonvulsants and supportive nursing care to manage neurologic signs.
Causative:: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 4 weeks, then tapered over 4–6 months; immunosuppressants such as cytarabine 50 mg/m² SC BID x 2 days every 3 weeks or cyclosporine 5–10 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive:: Long-term monitoring and therapy adjustments; prognosis guarded due to potential relapses.

Feline BlastomycosisA systemic fungal infection caused by Blastomyces dermatitidis, affecting lungs, eyes, skin, and lymph nodes.
Symptoms:: Dyspnea, blindness, uveitis, cough, weight loss, draining skin lesions, and lymphadenopathy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care with fluids, analgesics, and nutritional support.
Causative:: Fluconazole 4 mg/kg PO BID or itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO SID; in resistant cases, voriconazole or posaconazole may be considered. For severe systemic disease, use amphotericin B lipid complex 0.25 mg/kg IV q48h.
Supportive:: Long-term antifungal therapy for 60–90 days until complete resolution; monitor for recurrence and organ function during treatment.

Uterine InertiaA failure of the uterus to contract effectively during parturition, leading to prolonged labor and dystocia.
Symptoms:: Prolonged labor, weak or absent contractions, fetuses present in the birth canal, cervix dilated but no progression of delivery.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Stabilize dam, correct hypoglycemia with 5% dextrose IV if present, and monitor fetal viability.
Causative:: Oxytocin 0.5–2 IU SC or IM every 30–60 minutes (maximum 3 doses); calcium gluconate 10% 0.5–1 mL/kg IV slowly with ECG monitoring if hypocalcemia suspected.
Supportive:: If no response to medical management, proceed to surgical delivery (cesarean section).

Cancer-Associated HypercalcemiaA paraneoplastic syndrome caused by certain malignancies, leading to elevated blood calcium levels.
Symptoms:: Polyuria, polydipsia, lethargy, vomiting, muscle weakness, seizures, coma.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: IV fluids (0.9% NaCl) to restore perfusion and promote calciuresis.
Causative:: Furosemide 2 mg/kg IV q8h (only if well-hydrated); prednisone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID for moderate hypercalcemia; bisphosphonates such as clodronate 5–10 mg/kg IV over 15 minutes.
Supportive:: Consider calcitonin 4–6 IU/kg SC BID in refractory cases and provide ongoing monitoring of electrolytes.

Actinomycosis in dogs and catsA chronic bacterial infection caused by Actinomyces species, often associated with penetrating wounds or foreign bodies.
Symptoms:: Enlarged lymph nodes, mass-like lesions in head/neck, draining abscesses with gray granules, osteomyelitis, hypersalivation, coughing, lameness, ocular infections.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Surgical excision and debridement of abscesses.
Causative:: Penicillin G 20,000–40,000 IU/kg IM BID or penicillin V 40 mg/kg PO TID for 3–6 weeks. Alternatives: clindamycin 5.5 mg/kg PO BID or rifampin 10 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive:: Continue therapy until complete clinical resolution plus 1–2 additional weeks; provide analgesia and supportive care as needed.

Neoplasms of the Nasal PassageMalignant tumors affecting the nasal cavity, often invasive and progressive.
Symptoms:: Chronic nasal discharge (± hemorrhagic), facial deformity, snoring, reverse sneezing, seizures, blindness, CNS signs.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Palliative care with prednisone 1 mg/kg PO SID to reduce inflammation and clinical signs.
Causative:: Definitive surgical cytoreduction combined with adjunct radiation therapy (preferred). Chemotherapy options include carboplatin 200–250 mg/m² IV q3 weeks or cyclophosphamide 50 mg/m² PO SID for 4 days on, 3 days off.
Supportive:: Analgesics for pain, management of secondary infections, nutritional support. Avoid levamisole due to poor efficacy.

Q Fever in Dogs and CatsA zoonotic infection caused by Coxiella burnetii, often linked to tick exposure or contaminated animal material.
Symptoms:: Usually subclinical; may show fever, lethargy, anorexia, abortion, history of exposure to ticks or pigeon feces.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care with fluids and nutritional support if systemic illness present.
Causative:: Treatment rarely needed; if clinical, give doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID for 14–21 days.
Supportive:: Preventive measures include wearing gloves and masks when handling aborted material. Notify public health authorities if zoonotic exposure is suspected.

Francisella philomiragia InfectionA rare opportunistic bacterial infection often associated with aquatic environments.
Symptoms:: Meningitis-like signs: stiff neck, low head carriage, limb tremors, depression, systemic malaise.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Provide supportive fluids, nutritional support, and seizure control if required.
Causative:: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID with food for 14–21 days; consider adding clindamycin 10–12 mg/kg PO BID for refractory cases.
Supportive:: Prednisolone may be considered only if severe inflammation is present and under specialist advice.

False Pregnancy (Pseudopregnancy) A hormonal imbalance condition in non-pregnant bitches during diestrus.
Symptoms: Abdominal distension, vulval discharge, mammary hyperplasia, lactation, behavioral changes (nesting, aggression).
Treatment Symptomatic: Prevent self-nursing to avoid further lactation stimulation.
Causative: Cabergoline 5 µg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days.
Supportive: Ovariohysterectomy recommended after resolution in non-breeding animals. Hormonal therapies such as diethylstilbestrol or testosterone are no longer recommended due to adverse effects.

Laryngeal Paralysis A neuromuscular disorder leading to airway obstruction, most common in older large-breed dogs.
Symptoms: Inspiratory stridor (roaring/whistling), dyspnea, cyanosis, collapse after exertion.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy, sedation (e.g., acepromazine) for acute distress.
Causative: Definitive treatment is unilateral arytenoid lateralization ("tie-back" surgery).
Supportive: Corticosteroids (e.g., dexamethasone 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV) for laryngeal inflammation. Prognosis depends on underlying cause.

Hypocalcemia A metabolic emergency due to low serum calcium affecting neuromuscular stability.
Symptoms: Seizures, panting, tremors, twitching, tetany, muscle spasms, facial rubbing, altered gait, hypersensitivity to stimuli, metabolic collapse.
Treatment Symptomatic: Gabapentin 30 mg/kg/day in divided doses (PO BID) for seizures.
Causative: Calcitriol 20–30 ng/kg PO SID for 3–4 days then taper to 5–15 ng/kg PO SID; Dihydrotachysterol 0.02 mg/kg PO SID × 3 days, then 0.01 mg/kg/day; Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) 2000 IU/kg PO SID tapering to once weekly.
Supportive: Calcium gluconate 10% at 1 mL/kg slow IV over 10–20 min with ECG monitoring; Calcium carbonate 40 mg/kg/day PO divided BID for maintenance supplementation.

Atypical Mycobacteriosis (Cat) A chronic bacterial infection caused by atypical mycobacteria.
Symptoms: Erosions and ulcers of skin and mucous membranes.
Treatment Causative: Clofazimine 2–12 mg/kg PO SID, Azithromycin 7 mg/kg PO SID, Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg SC, IV, or PO SID.
Supportive: Long-term therapy often required (8–12 weeks or more), wound management, analgesia.

Lymphoplasmacytic Stomatitis A severe chronic oral inflammatory disease, especially in mature cats.
Symptoms: Oral pain, tissue proliferation, dysphagia, halitosis, bleeding gums, distorted mastication, ptyalism. Exam shows raised, ulcerative and proliferative gingival and pharyngeal lesions.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesia, oral antiseptic rinses, soft food diet.
Causative: Prednisolone 2 mg/kg PO SID, Megestrol acetate 0.25 mg/kg PO every other day × 3 doses then weekly, Azathioprine 1 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only), Chlorambucil 0.25 mg/kg PO q72h (cats) or 0.2 mg/kg PO SID (dogs), Cyclosporine 3 mg/kg PO BID tapering to SID.
Supportive: Dental care, extractions in refractory cases, nutritional support.

Trichinosis A parasitic infection acquired from ingestion of raw pork or wild game meat.
Symptoms: Slight fever, diarrhea, mild abdominal pain, vomiting, painful stiff muscles, dyspnea; history of eating raw pork or wild meat is common.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care, muscle relaxants (butylscopolamine 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID), corticosteroids or ACTH for inflammation.
Causative: Albendazole 25 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days; alternative: Thiabendazole (less commonly used).
Supportive: Fluid therapy, analgesia, rest during recovery.

Systemic and Ocular MycosesFungal infections such as blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, or coccidioidomycosis that may affect systemic organs and eyes.
Symptoms:: Blindness, ocular inflammation, lethargy, cough, dyspnea, weight loss, poor appetite.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain control, ocular anti-inflammatory care, nutritional support.
Causative:: Fluconazole 3 mg/kg PO BID or Flucytosine 25–35 mg/kg IV q8h for systemic infection.
Supportive:: Hydration, monitoring organ function, adjunctive ophthalmic therapy to preserve comfort.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma (Cat)An aggressive oral malignancy commonly affecting the tongue or gingiva in cats.
Symptoms:: Dysphagia, difficulty grasping food, oral bleeding, tumor on ventrolateral tongue, excessive licking, ptyalism, gagging.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Analgesics, assisted feeding, oral hygiene, palliative care in advanced disease.
Causative:: Surgical excision when possible; adjunctive therapy with Carboplatin 0.12 mg/m² IV q3–4 weeks, Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID, or combination Doxorubicin and Cyclophosphamide. Radiation therapy as indicated.
Supportive:: Nutritional support (feeding tubes if necessary), regular oral monitoring, owner guidance for long-term management.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma (Dog)An aggressive oral malignancy often arising at the tonsillar crypts or gingiva near incisors, premolars, or molars.
Symptoms:: Dysphagia, oral bleeding, tumors at tonsillar crypt or gingiva, excessive licking, ptyalism, gagging, halitosis.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management, soft food or assisted feeding, oral hygiene care.
Causative:: Surgical excision as first-line; adjunctive chemotherapy with Carboplatin 0.12 mg/m² IV q3–4 weeks, Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID, or combination Cisplatin and Doxorubicin. Radiation therapy as indicated.
Supportive:: Nutritional support, hydration, monitoring for metastasis, ongoing oral care and owner counseling.

Osteoarthritis (Degenerative Joint Disease)A progressive degenerative disorder of synovial joints characterized by cartilage deterioration and secondary inflammation.
Symptoms:: Joint swelling, chronic lameness, stiffness after rest, progressive pain, joint effusion, crepitus, and muscle atrophy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Analgesics for pain relief, controlled exercise, weight reduction to reduce joint load.
Causative:: NSAIDs such as Ketoprofen 1 mg/kg PO SID or Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID with food to reduce inflammation and pain.
Supportive:: Joint nutraceuticals (Glucosamine 22 mg/kg and Chondroitin sulfate 8.8 mg/kg PO SID), Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation, physiotherapy, and joint replacement surgery in severe cases.

Prostatic Abscess RuptureA life-threatening complication of chronic prostatitis where abscess rupture leads to peritonitis and septicemia.
Symptoms:: Severe abdominal pain, vomiting, fever, lethargy, septic shock signs (tachycardia, pale mucous membranes), possible icterus.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: IV fluids for shock stabilization, analgesics for pain management, antipyretics if fever present.
Causative:: Emergency surgical drainage of abscess and castration; long-term antibiotics (Trimethoprim-sulfonamide 15–30 mg/kg PO BID or Doxycycline 5–10 mg/kg PO BID) for 6–8 weeks.
Supportive:: Nutritional support, correction of electrolyte imbalances, monitoring for systemic inflammatory response, oxygen therapy if needed.

Malassezia Dermatitis (Cat)A fungal dermatitis commonly associated with allergic or immunosuppressive conditions, often affecting the face, ears, and neck.
Symptoms:: Brown greasy discharge in claw folds, exfoliative erythroderma, seborrhea, pruritus, erythema of affected regions.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Anti-pruritic therapy, frequent cleaning of lesions, topical antiseptic/antifungal therapy.
Causative:: Topical 2% Miconazole + 2% Chlorhexidine shampoo twice weekly for 3–4 weeks; systemic antifungal Itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID for 3–4 weeks (monitor liver enzymes).
Supportive:: Management of underlying conditions (allergies, endocrine disorders), omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, regular re-evaluation to prevent relapse.

Feline CryptococcosisA systemic fungal infection caused by Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii, typically acquired via inhalation (often from pigeon droppings).
Symptoms:: Chronic sneezing, mucopurulent nasal discharge, nasal ulcerations, subcutaneous nodules, central blindness, ataxia, seizures.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Surgical debridement of nodules, management of nasal obstruction and secondary bacterial infections.
Causative:: Antifungals: Fluconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID or Itraconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID. For CNS or ocular involvement: combine Amphotericin B IV with Flucytosine 50 mg/kg PO q8h for several weeks.
Supportive:: Long-term therapy (often several months), nutritional support, regular monitoring of liver/kidney function during antifungal therapy.

Malassezia Dermatitis (Dog)A yeast dermatitis common in dogs, particularly in predisposed breeds such as German Shepherds, Basset Hounds, and West Highland White Terriers.
Symptoms:: Intense pruritus, erythema, greasy skin, hyperpigmentation, alopecia, and rancid odor; typically affects ears, feet, perioral and perianal regions.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Topical cleansing and soothing therapy, antipruritic management.
Causative:: Topical antifungals: Miconazole 2% shampoo, Selenium sulfide 1% shampoo, or Lime sulfur dips twice weekly. Systemic antifungals: Ketoconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID, Itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID, or Terbinafine 30 mg/kg PO SID for 3–4 weeks.
Supportive:: Treatment of underlying causes (allergies, endocrine disease), omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, regular follow-up to prevent recurrence.

Canine Idiopathic CardiomyopathyA primary myocardial disease of dogs leading to poor cardiac contractility and chamber dilation.
Symptoms:: Pleural effusion, coughing, tachypnea, exercise intolerance, weakness, ascites, cold extremities, arrhythmias.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen therapy, fluid drainage for pleural effusion, and anti-arrhythmic management as needed.
Causative:: Triple therapy: Furosemide 2–4 mg/kg IV/IM BID–TID, Enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO SID, Digoxin 0.005–0.01 mg/kg PO BID (with serum monitoring).
Supportive:: Taurine 500 mg PO BID (dogs) or 250 mg PO SID (cats), Carnitine 50 mg/kg PO BID. In hypertensive crises: Hydralazine 1 mg/kg PO q4–6h until BP improves. Long-term monitoring of renal and cardiac function is essential.

Pain and InflammationCommon in dogs and cats as a response to trauma, surgery, arthritis, or systemic illness.
Symptoms:: Vocalization, limping, swelling, inflammation, reluctance to move, and behavioral changes (restlessness, aggression, hiding).
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Rest, cold or warm compresses depending on cause, gentle physiotherapy if indicated.
Causative:: NSAIDs: Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID, Ketoprofen 2 mg/kg IM/IV/SC SID (for up to 5 days).
Supportive:: Use of gastroprotectants during prolonged NSAID use, regular monitoring of kidney and liver function, adjunct therapies such as omega-3 supplementation or acupuncture when appropriate.

Genital DermatosesAllergic and inflammatory skin disorders of the ventral abdomen and genital region.
Symptoms:: Pruritus, hyperpigmentation, lichenification, erythema, alopecia, and sheath hypertrophy. May worsen with self-trauma or anxiety-induced licking.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Topical corticosteroids for localized inflammation; topical antiseptics to prevent secondary infection.
Causative:: Antihistamines: Clemastine 0.1 mg/kg PO BID, Cyproheptadine 2 mg PO SID. For anxiety-related licking: Oxazepam 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive:: Hypoallergenic diet trials, environmental allergen control, and behavior modification strategies to reduce self-trauma.

Autoimmune Genital DermatosesImmune-mediated dermatological disorders affecting the genital region (e.g., lupus erythematosus, bullous pemphigoid).
Symptoms:: Genital erythema, erosions, ulcerations, crusting, alopecia, and possible systemic illness depending on autoimmune type.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Topical corticosteroids or antiseptic washes for secondary infection control.
Causative:: Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID or Cyclosporine 3.3–6.7 mg/kg PO SID × 30 days. Adjust dose as needed.
Supportive:: Regular monitoring of CBC, liver, and renal parameters for immunosuppression side effects; nutritional support and stress reduction.

Sex Hormone Dermatoses (Male Dogs)Dermatological syndrome caused by altered androgen–estrogen balance, common in intact male dogs.
Symptoms:: Bilateral alopecia (especially flanks, perineum, neck), hyperpigmentation, coat color changes, gynecomastia, anemia, thrombocytopenia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Topical emollients or antiseptics if skin becomes secondarily infected.
Causative:: Definitive treatment is bilateral castration to restore hormonal balance.
Supportive:: Monitor long-term for dermatologic recurrence and neoplastic metastasis; consider periodic endocrine testing.

Myasthenia Gravis An autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by failure of neuromuscular transmission due to a deficiency or dysfunction of acetylcholine receptors (AChR) at the postsynaptic membrane. This leads to muscle weakness and fatigue upon exertion, with variable severity.
Symptoms:: Seen more commonly in Terrier breeds. Clinical signs include weakness, paresis, paralysis, ptyalism (excessive salivation), regurgitation, dysphagia, decreased palpebral reflex (due to facial muscle involvement), aspiration pneumonia, recumbency, and respiratory failure.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Supportive care to prevent aspiration and manage pneumonia. Elevate feeding to reduce risk of regurgitation.
Causative:: Pyridostigmine 2 mg/kg PO BID to TID to improve neuromuscular transmission. Alternatively, Neostigmine 0.04 mg/kg IM q6h may be used.
Supportive:: Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID to BID initially, gradually increasing to immunosuppressive doses of 2–4 mg/kg PO SID to BID over 7–10 days. Taper based on response and side effects.

Cuterebra Infestation in Cats Parasitic infection caused by the Cuterebra fly larva, commonly affecting outdoor or hunting cats. The larva enters through mucous membranes or skin wounds and migrates to subcutaneous tissues, forming cyst-like swellings.
Symptoms:: Depression, seizures, violent sneezing, blindness, lesions around the head, neck, and trunk, matted hair, subcutaneous swelling beneath lesions, aggressive grooming of affected areas, and purulent exudate from lesions.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Explore the lesion carefully and apply white petroleum jelly to suffocate the larva.
Causative:: Gently remove the parasite without squeezing the lesion to avoid rupture and secondary inflammation.
Supportive:: Avoid use of Ivermectin in cats due to toxicity risk. Administer antibiotics if secondary infection is present.

Bronchospasm A condition characterized by sudden constriction of the muscles in the walls of the bronchioles, often associated with allergic reactions, airway inflammation, or underlying respiratory disease.
Symptoms:: Coughing, wheezing, difficulty breathing, increased respiratory rate, and in severe cases, cyanosis (bluish tint to gums and mucous membranes).
Treatment Symptomatic:: Provide a calm environment and oxygen support if cyanosis is present.
Causative:: Administer Ephedrine 1–2 mg/kg PO every 8–12 hours to relieve bronchoconstriction.
Supportive:: Monitor respiratory function, and consider bronchodilators or corticosteroids in recurring cases depending on etiology.

Cuterebra InfestationParasitic infestation by Cuterebra larvae, commonly affecting cats and dogs.
Symptoms:: Lesions on head, neck, or trunk; matted hair, subcutaneous swelling with visible breathing pore, purulent exudate, and excessive grooming of affected area.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Apply petroleum jelly to occlude the breathing pore before removal; cleanse lesion to prevent secondary infection.
Causative:: Careful extraction of the larva without squeezing to avoid rupture.
Supportive:: Diphenhydramine 4 mg/kg IM; after 1 hour, administer Ivermectin 400 mcg/kg SC and Dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg IV for inflammation and allergic response.

Canine BrucellosisA contagious bacterial infection caused by Brucella canis, affecting reproduction and systemic health.
Symptoms:: Late-term abortion, weak or stillborn puppies, infertility or conception failure, epididymitis, scrotal swelling/dermatitis, spinal hyperesthesia, paresis, anterior uveitis.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care for reproductive or musculoskeletal pain; manage secondary infections.
Causative:: Long-term antibiotics such as Doxycycline 5–10 mg/kg PO BID for 4–6 weeks, often combined with Streptomycin 20 mg/kg IM daily for 7–14 days (where available).
Supportive:: Spaying/neutering is essential to reduce transmission. Isolate infected dogs and monitor with PCR or culture testing to detect relapse.

Eosinophilic BronchopneumopathyA chronic inflammatory airway disease characterized by eosinophilic infiltration of the lungs.
Symptoms:: Cough, gagging, retching, nasal discharge, dyspnea; patients usually remain in good condition unless secondary bacterial pneumonia develops.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care and management of respiratory distress if severe.
Causative:: Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO q12h for 7 days, then taper gradually to the lowest effective maintenance dose.
Supportive:: Monitor for relapses, as recurrence is common after discontinuation of corticosteroids.

Rocky Mountain Spotted FeverA tick-borne rickettsial disease caused by Rickettsia rickettsii with multi-systemic involvement.
Symptoms:: High fever, lethargy, edema, macules, petechiae, ecchymoses, dyspnea, cough, ocular/nasal discharge, orchitis, seizures.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive fluids for hydration, corticosteroids only if immune-mediated signs occur.
Causative:: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO/IV BID; alternatives: Tetracycline 30 mg/kg PO/IV TID, Chloramphenicol 25 mg/kg PO/SC/IM/IV TID, Enrofloxacin 3 mg/kg PO/IM BID.
Supportive:: Close monitoring of vital parameters, seizure control if required, and management of secondary infections.

AscariasisA parasitic infestation caused by roundworms (Toxocara spp.).
Symptoms:: Pot-bellied appearance, dull coat, respiratory distress, weight loss, poor growth in puppies and kittens.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Nutritional support and management of respiratory distress if severe.
Causative:: Piperazine (dogs only), Mebendazole, or Pyrantel pamoate as per standard deworming protocol.
Supportive:: Regular deworming schedule and strict hygiene to prevent reinfection.

Canine Transmissible Venereal Tumour (TVT)A contagious neoplasm affecting mucosal surfaces of the genitalia, oral cavity, and nasal cavity.
Symptoms:: Genital, oral, or nasal nodules; friable bleeding masses; vaginal or preputial bleeding; possible regional lymph node metastasis.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management and control of secondary infections.
Causative:: Vincristine sulfate 0.6 mg/m² IV once weekly × 3 weeks; if ineffective, Adriamycin 1 mg/kg IV weekly × 3 weeks. Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID may provide adjunctive benefit.
Supportive:: Monitor for myelosuppression and ensure good nutritional support during therapy.

Dysautonomia (Key-Gaskell Syndrome)Conjunctivitis, bilateral third eyelid prolapse, fecal incontinence, weight loss, dysuria, dysphagia, megaesophagus, regurgitation, vomiting.
TreatmentSupportive: gastrostomy tube, manual bladder expression, ophthalmic pilocarpine 1% or physostigmine 0.25% BID, bethanechol 3 mg PO BID or 0.0375 mg/kg SC.

Aortic ThromboembolismHypothermia, hind limb pain or paralysis (not listed but typical of the condition).
TreatmentHeparin 75 U/kg SC TID, cyproheptadine 2 mg PO SID.

Acanthosis Nigricans in DogsPigmentation in the inguinal region, inflammation due to friction, hair loss, seborrhea, pyoderma.
TreatmentAntimicrobial and antiseborrheic shampoos, Vitamin E 200 IU PO BID for 2–3 months, systemic glucocorticoids 1 mg/kg/day PO for 7–10 days, clindamycin 5 mg/kg PO BID for 3–5 days.

Mycotic PneumoniaProductive cough, tachypnea, respiratory distress, mucopurulent nasal discharge, exercise intolerance, wheezing, lethargy, anorexia, fever, weight loss, lymphadenopathy.
TreatmentLong-term antifungal therapy: itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO BID × 3 days, then SID × 2 months; cats may require BID dosing. Ketoconazole 10 mg/kg PO BID × 3 months. Consider amphotericin 1 mg/kg IV QOD in combination therapy.

Stomatitis, Gingivitis, and GlossitisInterest in food but refusal to eat, excessive salivation, reddened oral mucosa, anorexia, halitosis, ptyalism, oral bleeding, dysphagia, vomiting, gagging, regurgitation, face rubbing, head shaking, nasal discharge, sneezing, fever, depression.
TreatmentAmoxicillin 22 mg/kg PO TID, clindamycin 10 mg/kg PO BID, cephalexin 22 mg/kg PO TID, doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID, metronidazole 10 mg/kg PO BID. Antifungals: ketoconazole 10 mg/kg PO BID, itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID, fluconazole 2.5 mg/kg PO BID. In cats, corticosteroids and cyclosporine 2 mg/kg PO SID. Supportive care includes vitamins C & E and chlorhexidine 0.2% oral rinses.

Organophosphate PoisoningMuscarinic signs (vomiting, diarrhea, salivation, bronchoconstriction, increased bronchial secretions), nicotinic signs (muscle tremor and twitching), and CNS signs (behavioral change, seizures).
TreatmentAtropine sulfate 0.2–0.5 mg/kg (¼ IV, ¾ IM or SC), pralidoxime chloride 20 mg/kg IM or SC BID for tremors and weakness, diphenhydramine 4 mg/kg IM or PO BID for muscle weakness.

EperythrozoonosisHemolytic anemia in young cats, fever, weakness, icterus.
TreatmentTetracycline 5 mg/lb IM, chlortetracycline 50 mg/L in drinking water.

Feline CytauxzoonosisFever, anorexia, dyspnea, depression, icterus, pale mucous membranes, enlarged lymph nodes.
TreatmentHeparin 150 U/kg SC, atropine 0.04 mg/kg IV/IM/SC, glycopyrrolate 0.005–0.01 mg/kg IV/IM/SC, imidocarb dipropionate 3.5–5.0 mg/kg IM, diminazene aceturate 2.0 mg/kg IM, atovaquone 0.12 mg/kg PO, azithromycin 10 mg/kg PO.

Gastrointestinal LymphomaChronic diarrhea.
TreatmentButylscopolamine 0.1 mL/kg IV or IM BID or 0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID, dactinomycin inj, doxorubicin 30 mg/m² IV q3wk on days 1, 2, 3 and then every 4 weeks, epirubicin 3 mg/m² slow IV q3wk after premedication with chlorphenamine or dexamethasone.

Klebsiella InfectionsEnteritis, pneumonia, septicemia.
TreatmentBromhexine 8 mg/dog IM BID or 2 mg PO BID, enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg SC/IV/PO SID, cefixime 12.5 mg/kg PO BID for 7–14 days.

Anthrax in Dogs and CatsFever, anorexia, local inflammation, necrosis, and edema of tissues of the upper GI tract, swelling of the head and neck, hemorrhagic gastroenteritis.
TreatmentPenicillin G IV, amoxicillin or ampicillin PO for 7–14 days.

Listeria monocytogenes InfectionFever, diarrhea, vomiting, neurologic signs, abortion, abscess of the front paw, peritonitis.
TreatmentButylscopolamine 0.1 mL/kg IV/IM BID or 0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID, trimethoprim-sulfonamide, gentamicin and tobramycin, or gentamicin + ampicillin.

Mycoplasma felis InfectionSerous ocular discharge progressing to mucoid, conjunctivitis, pneumonia, pyothorax, bronchopneumonia.
TreatmentBromhexine 8 mg/dog IM BID or 2 mg PO BID, azithromycin 7 mg/kg PO SID, enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg SC/IV/PO SID, doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID with food.

Mycoplasma canis InfectionPneumonia, fever (≥41 °C), productive cough.
TreatmentAzithromycin 7 mg/kg PO SID, enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg SC/IV/PO SID, lincomycin, erythromycin.

Mycoplasma haemocanis InfectionListlessness, pale mucous membranes, anemia, normal rectal temperature, normal appetite.
TreatmentAzithromycin 7 mg/kg PO SID, enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg SC/IV/PO SID, blood transfusions, oral tetracyclines.

Mycoplasma turicensis InfectionYoung cats, anemia, tachypnea, depression, weakness, anorexia, weight loss, pale mucous membranes, dehydration, normal rectal temperature.
TreatmentAzithromycin 7 mg/kg PO SID, enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg SC/IV/PO SID, doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID with food or oxytetracyclines for 3 weeks, prednisolone 2 mg/kg PO every 12 hrs.

Neoplasm of SpleenAcute abdominal pain.
TreatmentLevamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO once daily.

Cutaneous LymphomaHalitosis.
TreatmentVincristine, cyclophosphamide, dactinomycin, doxorubicin 30 mg/m² IV q3wk on days 1–3 and every 4 weeks thereafter, epirubicin 3 mg/m² slow IV q3wk after chlorphenamine or dexamethasone premedication.

Respiratory ParasitesCough.
TreatmentFenbendazole, prednisolone 0.5 mg/kg.

Tracheal CollapseHistory of respiratory abnormalities, inspiratory difficulty, “goose honk” coughing, signs elicited by excitement, pressure on trachea, high heat or humidity, eating or drinking; respiratory distress, exercise intolerance, cyanosis, and syncope in severe cases.
TreatmentCorticosteroids for 7 days, fluticasone propionate 1 puff BID, theophylline 10 mg/kg PO BID, terbutaline 2.5 mg PO BID, albuterol 50 mg/kg PO BID, antibiotics, butorphanol 1.0 mg/kg PO BID or hydrocodone 0.22 mg/kg PO q6h, weight reduction, intratracheal stents, surgical placement of external rings.

Bacterial BronchopneumoniaCough, exercise intolerance, dyspnea, nasal discharge, anorexia, depression, weight loss, fever, labored breathing, tachypnea, productive cough, listlessness, mucopurulent nasal exudate.
TreatmentAvoid cough suppressants and antihistamines; amoxicillin–clavulanic acid + enrofloxacin or aminoglycoside; fluoroquinolones for lung penetration.

Canine Infectious TracheobronchitisSudden dry, paroxysmal “seal bark” cough, no systemic illness signs, cough triggered by tracheal palpation; caused by viral or bacterial pathogens, inflammation and erosion of tracheal epithelium.
TreatmentWarm, dry environment; nebulization or intratracheal gentamicin 5 mg/kg SID for 5 days; doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID; amoxicillin-clavulanic acid 10 mg/kg PO BID.

Pulmonary EdemaTachypnea, coughing with blood‑tinged fluid, respiratory distress; subtle inspiratory crackles progressing to bi‑phase crackles in advanced cases.
TreatmentReduce stress, provide supplemental oxygen via nasal cannula, face mask, or oxygen cage; administer furosemide 3 mg/kg IV q8h; if bronchospasm present use aminophylline (dogs 8 mg/kg PO TID; cats 5 mg/kg PO BID) or theophylline 4 mg/kg PO TID.

Open Pyometra (Dog)Frequent vomiting, polyuria, polydipsia, purulent vulvar discharge, abdominal distension, tachypnea, subnormal temperature, enlarged vulva.
TreatmentStabilize fluids (Lactated Ringer’s IV), administer dinoprost tromethamine 0.1–0.25 mg/kg SC BID until uterine evacuation; broad‑spectrum antibiotics (e.g., penicillin + streptomycin); Ovariohysterectomy once stable; supportive estrogen therapy with diethylstilbestrol IM only if medically indicated.

Intestinal Pythiosis / ZygomycosisChronic intractable vomiting and diarrhea, anorexia, depression, progressive weight loss; occasionally bloody diarrhea.
TreatmentManage GI spasms with butylscopolamine (0.1 mL/kg IV/IM BID or 0.5 mg/kg PO BID); surgical resection of severely affected bowel segments; antifungal therapy using itraconazole + terbinafine or lipid‑complex amphotericin B 0.25 mg/kg IV q24‑48 h.

Canine Thyroid Tumors (Hyperthyroidism-like)Middle‑aged to older dogs with large palpable cervical mass, dyspnea, cough, dysphagia, hoarse bark; anorexia, weight loss; signs of hormone excess—PU/PD, polyphagia, restlessness.
TreatmentPalliative unless surgical excision possible; surgery is first-line; adjunct chemotherapy options include doxorubicin, cisplatin, or cyclophosphamide + vincristine; radiation therapy or debulking + chemo may improve quality of life, but remission is rare.

Hepatocutaneous Syndrome (Superficial Necrolytic Dermatitis)Older dogs (7–16 years), crusting hyperkeratosis of footpads, mucocutaneous ulceration, ear crusting, pressure sores, deformed nails, diarrhea, PU/PD, reluctance to walk.
TreatmentIV amino acid infusion (dogs: 10% solution at 1.5 g/kg over 8–12 h), zinc 1–2 mg/kg PO SID, vitamin E 10 IU/kg PO SID, omega-3 fatty acids 50 mg/kg PO SID, ursodeoxycholic acid 10–15 mg/kg PO SID for hepatic support, high-protein low-fat diet. Consider glucagonoma or hepatic disease as underlying cause.

Hepatic Neoplasia (Cats)Older cats (10–12 years), weight loss, vomiting, lethargy, jaundice, abdominal distension, ascites.
TreatmentAttempt surgical excision if localized and resectable; adjunct chemotherapy such as doxorubicin 1 mg/kg IV q21d or CCNU (lomustine) 40–50 mg/m² PO q3–6 weeks. Supportive care includes appetite stimulants, antiemetics, and liver-protective agents (e.g., s-adenosylmethionine 20 mg/kg PO SID). Levamisole is no longer recommended due to limited efficacy and toxicity risk.

Bronchial Asthma (Feline)Dyspnea, open-mouth breathing, coughing, wheezing, cyanosis, exercise intolerance, especially in cats.
TreatmentAlbuterol (salbutamol) 90 mcg per inhalation via spacer PRN; prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID initially then taper; fluticasone 110–220 mcg/inhalation BID for maintenance; terbutaline 0.01–0.02 mg/kg SC q8–12h (or 0.625 mg PO BID); aminophylline 5 mg/kg IV; cyclosporine is considered in steroid-resistant cases. Minimize environmental triggers.

Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT)Sudden-onset tachycardia, coughing, hypothermia, potential collapse or syncope.
TreatmentAcute:diltiazem 0.05–0.25 mg/kg IV slowly; or esmolol 0.05–0.5 mg/kg IV slow bolus. Maintenance: diltiazem 0.5–2 mg/kg PO q8h, digoxin 5–8 mcg/kg PO BID (monitor serum levels), atenolol 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID, amiodarone 10 mg/kg PO SID for 7 days then taper. Holter monitoring may assist in case management.

SporotrichosisNodules, ulcers, and draining tracts on the head, nasal planum, and limbs; enlarged lymph nodes; chronic subcutaneous nodules that ulcerate and discharge pus.
TreatmentItraconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID (cats and dogs) for 4–6 weeks beyond clinical resolution; potassium iodide 20–40 mg/kg PO divided BID–TID (monitor for toxicity). Long-term therapy (often over 2 months) is required. Zoonotic—use caution.

Cystic Endometrial Hyperplasia-Pyometra ComplexVomiting, acute abdominal pain, purulent vaginal discharge, lethargy, PU/PD, most common in intact older females.
TreatmentPreferred: Ovariohysterectomy with perioperative IV fluids and broad-spectrum antibiotics (cefazolin 22 mg/kg IV TID, ampicillin/sulbactam). For open pyometra and breeding interest: dinoprost 0.1–0.25 mg/kg SC BID with monitoring, cloprostenol 1 mcg/kg SC SID. Pain: pregabalin 4 mg/kg PO BID.

UrethritisStranguria, hematuria, pollakiuria, bloody preputial or vaginal discharge.
TreatmentEmpirical antibiotic: amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5 mg/kg PO BID x 10–14 days. Inflammatory/immune-mediated: piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID, prednisone 1 mg/kg PO BID then taper; for refractory cases add azathioprine(Imuran) 2 mg/kg PO QOD or cyclophosphamide 2.2 mg/kg PO SID (4 days/week) with CBC monitoring.

Urinary Tract Parasitism (Dioctophyma renale)Hematuria, abdominal pain, weight loss, restlessness, neurological signs if severe.
TreatmentUnilateral nephrectomy if the affected kidney is non-functional. Surgical removal is the only curative option. Periodic ultrasound monitoring recommended for diagnosis and follow-up.

Roundworm Infection Symptoms:Anemia, weight loss.
Treatment Emodepside spot-on (cats), fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 3 days (young animals), or single dose 100 mg/kg PO. Repeat deworming in 2–3 weeks if indicated.

Cranial Trauma Symptoms:Loss of consciousness, circling, altered mentation, contralateral postural deficits, blindness, coma, nystagmus, head tilt.
Treatment Stabilize: oxygen, fluids, ventilation. Mannitol 0.5 g/kg IV over 10 min, followed by furosemide 0.7 mg/kg IV 15 min later. Hypertonic saline 7% at 3 mL/kg IV over 4 min if cerebral edema. Surgery if skull fracture or hematoma.

Hydrocephalus (Toy/Small Dogs) Symptoms:Head tilt, ataxia, blindness, prostration, convulsions, coma.
Treatment Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO BID tapering to QOD, furosemide 1 mg/kg PO BID, acetazolamide 10 mg/kg PO TID. Anticonvulsants: phenobarbital 2 mg/kg PO BID, potassium bromide 20 mg/kg PO SID. CSF tap in emergencies. Prognosis: guarded to poor.

Canine Nasal Aspergillosis Symptoms:Facial swelling, mucopurulent nasal discharge, sneezing, oculonasal discharge, lymphadenopathy, ulcerated nostrils.
Treatment Itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO SID for 4–6 weeks, or voriconazole 3 mg/kg PO BID. Severe cases: amphotericin B IV or local infusion. Supportive: fluids, anti-inflammatories, antibiotics for secondary infection.

Murine Typhus in Cats. Symptoms:Mild fever or asymptomatic. Zoonotic.
Treatment Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID with food for 21 days. Alternative: erythromycin 10–20 mg/kg PO BID.

Chronic Gastritis Symptoms:Chronic or intermittent vomiting (food or bile), hyporexia, weight loss, melena, hematemesis.
Treatment Cimetidine 7 mg/kg PO/IV/IM q8h, fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 5 days, prednisone 1 mg/kg PO SID for 2 weeks. In GI pythiosis: surgical resection. If unresectable: itraconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID and terbinafine 7 mg/kg PO SID.

Helicobacteriosis Symptoms:Vomiting, diarrhea, melena, weight loss, possible hepatitis.
Treatment Bismuth subsalicylate 1 mL/kg PO TID (dogs), famotidine 0.5 mg/kg PO SID, metronidazole 10–12.5 mg/kg PO SID, amoxicillin 22 mg/kg PO TID. Duration typically 2–3 weeks.

Arsenic Poisoning Symptoms:Profuse watery diarrhea, colic, weak pulse, hematemesis.
Treatment Succimer 10 mg/kg PO q8h for 10 days, dimercaprol 3 mg/kg IM q4h x 2 days, then q8h x 10 days, penicillamine 20 mg/kg PO, sodium thiosulfate 30 mg/kg IV BID or 1 g PO. Emesis, activated charcoal, kaolin-pectin, IV fluids (dogs 70 mL/kg, cats 50 mL/kg), possible blood transfusion.

Gastric Pythiosis (Dogs) Symptoms:Young dogs, severe weight loss, vomiting, diarrhea, hematochezia.
Treatment Surgical resection preferred. Antifungal therapy: itraconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID and terbinafine 7 mg/kg PO SID for 6–9 months. In severe cases: amphotericin B lipid complex 2–3 mg/kg IV QOD to cumulative dose of 24–27 mg/kg.

Stress Ulceration Symptoms:Hematemesis, shock (hypovolemic, septic, neurogenic, or post-GDV).
Treatment Hydrocortisone sodium succinate 0.08 mg/kg/hr IV, desmopressin 0.01–0.04 U/min IV. Supportive therapy based on underlying shock cause.

Steatitis (Cats) Symptoms:Fever, hemoglobinuria, back and abdominal pain, unwillingness to move. Often affects well-fed young cats.
Treatment Change diet, supplement with vitamin E (30 mg/day), and use ketoprofen 2 mg/kg/day IM, IV, or SC for pain management.

Canine Herpesvirus Infection A viral disease caused by a double-stranded DNA virus of the Herpesviridae family, primarily affecting neonates and pregnant bitches. It can cause abortion, stillbirth, or severe systemic illness in puppies.
Symptoms:: Papulovesicular lesions that regress and reappear, infertility, abortion, stillbirths, ataxia, and blindness in 1–3 week old puppies.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Provide nutritional support, warming (to maintain body temperature), and IV/oral dextrose for hypoglycemia.
Causative:: Administer hyperimmune serum from recovered dogs to boost immunity in exposed puppies.
Supportive:: Use broad-spectrum antibiotics to prevent secondary bacterial infections. Apply ophthalmic antiviral cidofovir 0.5% BID in ocular involvement.

Thyroid Tumors in Dogs Nonfunctional thyroid masses typically occurring in middle-aged to older dogs, often presenting as locally invasive neoplasms.
Symptoms:: Large cervical mass, dyspnea, cough, dysphagia, hoarseness, anorexia, polyuria, polyphagia, restlessness, nervousness, frequent defecation.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Manage airway compromise and dysphagia as needed.
Causative:: Surgical excision when feasible; medical management with methimazole for functional tumors; beta-blockers for tachycardia.
Supportive:: Chemotherapy options include doxorubicin or cyclophosphamide + vincristine; external beam radiation therapy for unresectable or residual tumors.

Urethral Muscle Spasm A condition often secondary to urinary tract irritation, leading to functional obstruction due to sustained contraction of the urethral smooth or skeletal muscle.
Symptoms:: Anuria, oliguria.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Relieve obstruction if present and ensure adequate hydration.
Causative:: Dantrolene 1 mg/kg PO BID or 3 mg/kg IV to relax striated muscle.
Supportive:: Estriol 1 mg/kg PO SID for urethral tone modulation, especially in hormonally responsive cases.

Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia Immune-mediated destruction of red blood cells leading to anemia and secondary complications.
Symptoms:: Icterus (jaundice).
Treatment Symptomatic:: Supportive care to stabilize anemia and prevent thromboembolic events.
Causative:: Prednisolone (dose as indicated for immunosuppression), Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID, Danazol capsules for additional immunomodulation.
Supportive:: Aspirin 0.5 mg/kg PO BID for antithrombotic effect, Darbepoetin injections to stimulate erythropoiesis.

Mucormycosis Fungal infection caused by organisms such as Mucor, Rhizopus, and Absidia spp. in dogs and cats.
Symptoms:: Diarrhea, convulsions, abortion, respiratory distress.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Butylscopolamine 0.1 mL/kg IV/IM BID or 0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID to reduce gastrointestinal spasms.
Causative:: Amphotericin B 0.25 mg/kg IV every 24–48 hours to target the fungal pathogen.

Dermatophilosis in CatsA bacterial skin infection caused by Dermatophilus congolensis, often linked to prolonged wetting of the skin or poor grooming.
Symptoms:: Skin lesions with matted hair, deep abscesses in muscles and lymph nodes, draining fistulas, and ulcerative granulomas on the tongue or bladder.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Clip hair around lesions, keep skin dry, clean with chlorhexidine 2–4% scrub daily or every 48h, lime sulfur dip (2%) once weekly.
Causative:: Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID for 10–21 days; Amoxicillin 20 mg/kg PO BID; Ampicillin 20 mg/kg IV/IM q8–12h; Procaine/benzathine penicillin 22,000–44,000 IU/kg IM SID for 7–14 days.
Supportive:: Buprenorphine 0.01–0.03 mg/kg IV/IM/SC q6–8h for analgesia, E-collar to prevent self-trauma, maintain a clean and dry environment.

Dermatochalasis in DogsA skin condition often associated with Dermatophilus congolensis, leading to crust formation and ulceration on haired skin.
Symptoms:: Crusts on haired skin with underlying erythema and ulceration.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Keep skin dry and clipped; bathe with 2% lime sulfur or povidone-iodine solution every 7–14 days.
Causative:: Amoxicillin 20 mg/kg PO BID for 10–21 days; Procaine/benzathine penicillin 22,000–44,000 IU/kg IM SID for 7–14 days.
Supportive:: Wound cleaning with chlorhexidine 2–4% solution daily; apply topical antibiotic ointment (e.g., silver sulfadiazine) to ulcerated areas; E-collar to prevent self-trauma.

Lead PoisoningA toxic condition caused by ingestion of lead-containing materials such as paint chips, fishing weights, batteries, or contaminated food/water.
Symptoms:: Hematemesis, excessive salivation, regurgitation, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, CNS signs (tremors, seizures, blindness, opisthotonos), and behavioral changes.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Control seizures with diazepam 0.5–1 mg/kg IV q10–15 min as needed; provide fluid therapy to maintain hydration and electrolyte balance.
Causative:: Succimer 10 mg/kg PO q8h for 10 days; Dimercaprol 3 mg/kg IM q4h for 2 days, then q8h for 10 days; Calcium disodium EDTA 50 mg/kg/day IV or SC divided q6–12h (diluted in 5% dextrose) for 5 days; remove source of lead exposure.
Supportive:: Atropine 0.02–0.04 mg/kg SC/IM for severe salivation; nutritional support; gastroprotectants (sucralfate 0.5–1 g PO TID) if GI ulceration is present.

Zinc PoisoningA toxic condition caused by ingestion of zinc-containing objects such as coins, screws, bolts, or zinc oxide ointments.
Symptoms:: Hematemesis, vomiting, diarrhea, lethargy, jaundice, pale gums, seizures, and collapse.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Stabilize with IV fluids (Lactated Ringer’s or 0.9% NaCl at 60–90 mL/kg/day), antiemetics (maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID), and gastroprotectants (sucralfate 0.5–1 g PO TID).
Causative:: Immediate removal of zinc source via endoscopy or surgery; Calcium disodium EDTA 50 mg/kg/day IV or SC divided q6–12h after dilution with 5% dextrose for 5 days.
Supportive:: Blood transfusion if severe hemolytic anemia; anticonvulsants (diazepam 0.5–1 mg/kg IV) for seizures; nutritional support until recovery.

Anal Sacculitis or AbscessInflammation or infection of one or both anal sacs, often secondary to impaction, trauma, or bacterial overgrowth.
Symptoms:: Scooting, licking or biting perianal area, swelling or redness near anus, pain on defecation, purulent or bloody anal discharge, and occasionally hematochezia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Warm compresses to reduce swelling; E-collar to prevent self-trauma.
Causative:: Manual expression, lancing and flushing with antiseptic solution; systemic antibiotics such as Clavamox 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days or Enrofloxacin 5–10 mg/kg PO SID; analgesics like Tramadol 2–4 mg/kg PO q8–12h; NSAIDs such as Carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID to reduce inflammation.
Supportive:: High-fiber diet to ease anal sac emptying; stool softeners if needed.

Esophageal StrictureA narrowing of the esophageal lumen caused by injury, inflammation, or scar tissue formation, often secondary to reflux, foreign body injury, or caustic ingestion.
Symptoms:: Regurgitation (often mistaken for vomiting), dysphagia, weight loss, ptyalism, and inappetence. Hematochezia is rare and may indicate concurrent gastrointestinal pathology.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Soft or liquid diet to minimize trauma; feeding in an elevated position; sucralfate 0.5–1 g PO TID for mucosal protection.
Causative:: Balloon dilation or bougienage under endoscopic guidance; Colchicine 0.03 mg/kg PO SID to reduce fibrosis; Domperidone 3 mg/animal PO q8h to improve motility; Metoclopramide 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO/SC/IV q6–8h or Ondansetron 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV/PO q8–12h for antiemetic control.
Supportive:: Proton pump inhibitors (omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO SID–BID) to reduce acid reflux; analgesics if painful swallowing.

Diabetes MellitusA metabolic disorder characterized by chronic hyperglycemia due to defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. More common in middle-aged to older animals, with female dogs predisposed.
Symptoms:: Polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, muscle wasting, bilateral cataracts, uveitis, delayed wound healing, poor response to general anesthesia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Dietary modification—high-fiber, complex carbohydrate diets for dogs; low-carbohydrate, high-protein diets for cats.
Causative:: Insulin 0.5 U/kg SC BID; glipizide 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO BID (cats only); metformin 50 mg/cat PO BID; chlorpropamide 10–40 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive:: Regular blood glucose monitoring, body weight tracking, and management of concurrent infections or pancreatitis.

Diabetes InsipidusA disorder characterized by the inability to concentrate urine due to vasopressin (ADH) deficiency or renal insensitivity to ADH, leading to excessive water loss.
Symptoms:: Excessive drinking (over 100 ml/kg/24 h), marked polyuria with nocturia and incontinence, persistent polydipsia, dehydration, occasional anorexia, weight loss, CNS signs, delayed wound healing.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Ensure constant access to clean water to prevent dehydration.
Causative:: Desmopressin 200 µg PO BID; chlorpropamide 20 mg/kg PO SID (not for cats); hydrochlorothiazide 3 mg/kg PO q12h; or chlorothiazide 30 mg/kg PO q12h.
Supportive:: Monitor hydration status, body weight, and electrolyte balance regularly.

Addison's Disease (Adrenocortical Insufficiency)A disorder caused by inadequate production of glucocorticoids and/or mineralocorticoids, most often due to immune-mediated destruction of the adrenal cortex. Common in young to middle-aged female dogs.
Symptoms:: Hypothermia, night waking, polyphagia, trembling, shivering, head tilt, muscle weakness, shaking, polyuria, alopecia, melena, bradycardia, cardiac arrhythmias.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Immediate stabilization with IV fluids to correct dehydration, hypotension, and electrolyte imbalances (especially hyperkalemia and hyponatremia).
Causative:: Dexamethasone sodium phosphate 2–4 mg/kg IV; Prednisolone sodium succinate 15–20 mg/kg IV for glucocorticoid replacement; Fludrocortisone 0.01 mg/kg PO SID for mineralocorticoid supplementation.
Supportive:: Monitor electrolytes and cardiac rhythm; adjust fludrocortisone dose based on follow-up labs; lifelong hormone replacement usually required.

Masticatory MyositisAn immune-mediated inflammatory disorder specifically targeting type 2M muscle fibers of the masticatory muscles. Commonly seen in large-breed dogs and may present in acute or chronic stages.
Symptoms:: Acute stage—trismus (difficulty opening mouth), fever, blindness; Chronic stage—dysphagia, difficulty chewing, weight loss, and muscle atrophy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management and supportive feeding to maintain nutrition.
Causative:: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 4 weeks, then gradual taper to maintenance dose; Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only) for immunosuppression; Cyclophosphamide 2 mg/kg PO SID (4 days on, 3 days off for up to 3 weeks) in refractory cases.
Supportive:: Monitor for adverse effects of immunosuppressants; soft food diet during recovery; physiotherapy to maintain jaw mobility.

Cerebral EdemaAn acute or chronic condition characterized by excess accumulation of fluid in brain tissues, leading to increased intracranial pressure and neurological dysfunction.
Symptoms:: Seizures, incoordination, neurological abnormalities, and altered mentation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Immediate measures to reduce intracranial pressure and prevent further brain injury.
Causative:: Mannitol 0.5 g/kg IV over 15 min to induce osmotic diuresis; Hypertonic saline 7% 3 mL/kg IV over 5 min to rapidly reduce cerebral swelling; Furosemide 0.7 mg/kg IV given 15 min after mannitol to enhance diuresis; Dexamethasone 2–3 mg/kg IV or SC to reduce inflammation.
Supportive:: Oxygen supplementation, maintain normothermia, elevate head at 30°, and monitor neurological status closely.

Tooth FracturePtyalism (bloody or excessive), changes in eating habits, repeated interest in food without eating, head shaking, oral discomfort, difficulty closing mouth, lethargy, anxiety. Fractured portion may be visible, or tooth may appear shortened.
Symptoms:: Ptyalism, oral discomfort, difficulty closing mouth, lethargy, anxiety, visible fractured tooth or shortened tooth.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain relief with analgesics, soft food during recovery.
Causative:: Minor enamel fractures may be smoothed; larger fractures may need restoration or root canal therapy. Teeth with deep root fractures or necrotic pulp require extraction.
Supportive:: Prevent further trauma by avoiding hard chew toys or objects, maintain good oral hygiene.

Oral Bone FractureBreakage of a tooth or oral bone causing pain, inflammation, and difficulty eating or swallowing.
Symptoms:: Dysphagia, drooling, pawing at the mouth, reluctance to eat hard food, oral bleeding, halitosis.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Soft or moistened food to reduce chewing discomfort, maintain oral hygiene to prevent infection.
Causative:: Dental extraction or surgical repair of the fractured bone or tooth as indicated.
Supportive:: Clindamycin 5 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days to control infection; appropriate analgesia such as NSAIDs (e.g., carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID) or opioids (e.g., buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV/IM/SC q6–8h) for pain relief.

Cardiac Arrest (Asystole)A life-threatening condition characterized by the complete absence of cardiac electrical and mechanical activity, confirmed on ECG.
Symptoms:: Sudden collapse, unresponsiveness, and absence of pulse or spontaneous breathing.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Immediate high-quality cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) to maintain circulation and oxygenation.
Causative:: Identify and correct reversible causes (Hs & Ts) such as hypoxia, hypovolemia, acidosis, tension pneumothorax, or cardiac tamponade.
Supportive:: Epinephrine 0.01 mg/kg IV/IO every 3–5 min during CPR. Vasopressin is no longer routinely recommended in current guidelines.

Progestogen ExcessA condition caused by excessive exposure to progestogens, leading to hormonal and behavioral alterations.
Symptoms:: Hypersexuality in male dogs and cats, which may include mounting, roaming, or restlessness.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Behavioral management and reduction of environmental stimuli that trigger sexual behaviors.
Causative:: Discontinue or reduce exogenous progestogen administration where possible.
Supportive:: Delmadinone to suppress sexual behavior and reduce androgen-driven effects.

Canine Distemper EncephalomyelitisA severe neurological manifestation of morbillivirus infection in dogs, resulting in inflammation and degeneration of the central nervous system.
Symptoms:: Seizures, stupor, ataxia, vestibular signs; often fatal within 2–3 weeks. May also present with myoclonus, blindness, or behavioral changes.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: IV fluids, nutritional support, anticonvulsants to control seizures, and measures to maintain comfort.
Causative:: No specific antiviral therapy available; focus on prevention through vaccination.
Supportive:: Palliative care in progressive cases; humane euthanasia may be considered when quality of life is severely compromised.

Cardiogenic Pulmonary EdemaA condition characterized by accumulation of fluid in the lungs secondary to left-sided heart failure, leading to impaired gas exchange and respiratory distress.
Symptoms:: Cough, hemoptysis, dyspnea, and respiratory collapse; may also present with orthopnea, cyanosis, or tachypnea.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen supplementation, minimal stress, and positioning to improve breathing.
Causative:: Manage underlying cardiac disease through appropriate medical therapy.
Supportive:: Bromhexine 8 mg IM BID or 2 mg PO BID; Aminophylline 9–11 mg/kg PO/IM TID; topical glyceryl trinitrate 20 mg; dexamethasone 0.12 mg/kg SID (IM/SC/PO); amiloride 0.1 mg/kg PO BID.

Hepatobiliary NeoplasiaA tumor arising from the liver or biliary structures, which may be benign or malignant, and can impair hepatic function or cause biliary obstruction.
Symptoms:: Acute abdominal pain; may also present with jaundice, anorexia, weight loss, ascites, or vomiting in advanced cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management, nutritional support, and stabilization of hepatic function.
Causative:: Surgical excision if feasible, depending on tumor type, location, and patient condition.
Supportive:: Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO once daily as immune support; adjunctive therapies as indicated.

Feline Stomach Worm (Physaloptera spp.)A parasitic infection of the feline stomach caused by Physaloptera spp., leading to gastric irritation, gastrointestinal bleeding, and systemic effects.
Symptoms:: Vomiting, dark feces (melena), anemia, and weight loss; worms may occasionally be visible in vomitus.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care for dehydration, anemia, and nutritional deficits.
Causative:: Remove worms via endoscopy when possible, followed by pyrantel pamoate 20 mg/kg PO every 2 weeks for at least three treatments; ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg SC or PO, two doses 2 weeks apart may be used if pyrantel is not feasible.
Supportive:: Corticosteroids may be indicated in cases with severe gastritis to alleviate clinical signs.

Renal Secondary HyperparathyroidismA metabolic bone disorder resulting from chronic renal failure, leading to persistently elevated parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels and progressive bone demineralization.
Symptoms:: Polydipsia/polyuria, weight loss, rubber jaw, jaw fractures, loose teeth, bone pain, and dehydration.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management, nutritional support, and correction of dehydration and electrolyte imbalances.
Causative:: Supportive management of chronic renal disease; phosphate binders and dietary modification to control mineral balance.
Supportive:: No reliable cure for bone changes; parathyroidectomy is rarely performed.

Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism A metabolic bone disease caused by dietary calcium–phosphorus imbalance leading to skeletal deformities.
Symptoms: Young animals with vomiting, lameness, bony deformities, ↑parathormone, ↑alkaline phosphatase, ↓calcium.
Treatment Symptomatic: External coaptation and exercise restriction to reduce fracture risk and pain.
Causative: Calcium supplementation with a corrected 2:1 Ca:P dietary ratio to address the underlying deficiency.
Supportive: Atenolol 1 mg/kg PO BID if cardiac stress develops, plus nutritional correction and monitoring of skeletal recovery.

Thoracic Wall NeoplasiaA primary tumor of the chest wall (commonly osteosarcoma or hemangiosarcoma) involving thoracic bones and soft tissues, potentially impairing respiration and mobility.
Symptoms:: Dyspnea, coughing, lethargy, weight loss, thoracic limb lameness, and a palpable chest mass.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Thoracocentesis or pericardiocentesis as indicated, with supplemental oxygen therapy.
Causative:: Aggressive en bloc surgical resection of the tumor, including affected ribs when necessary.
Supportive:: Adjuvant chemotherapy with cisplatin and doxorubicin; levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO daily.

Hyperosmolar Non-Ketotic Diabetes MellitusA severe complication of diabetes mellitus characterized by extreme hyperglycemia without ketosis, resulting in hyperosmolar fluid shifts and profound dehydration.
Symptoms:: Dehydration, hypokalemia, diuresis, vomiting, muscle weakness, tachypnea, mental obtundation, and coma; notably, no acetone breath.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Careful fluid replacement to restore hydration and perfusion.
Causative:: Gradual correction of hyperglycemia and electrolyte imbalances to avoid rapid osmotic changes.
Supportive:: Add potassium ≤ 0.5 mEq/kg/h; correct hypophosphatemia with potassium phosphate; use 0.45% NaCl to slowly reduce sodium; avoid rapid osmolar correction to prevent cerebral edema.

Hyperemia due to HyperthermiaA vascular response to elevated body temperature, resulting in generalized hyperemia due to peripheral vasodilation.
Symptoms:: Generalized redness of skin and mucous membranes associated with hyperthermia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Cool the patient gradually to normal body temperature and monitor cardiovascular status.
Causative:: Address underlying cause of hyperthermia (e.g., environmental heat, malignant hyperthermia, infection).
Supportive:: Dantrolene 1 mg/kg PO BID or 3 mg/kg IV; Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID.

Anaphylactic Reaction A severe, acute hypersensitivity reaction triggered by exposure to allergens (e.g., insect stings, drugs, vaccines, foods), resulting in massive mast cell degranulation and release of histamine and other mediators. It can rapidly progress to life-threatening shock.
Symptoms: Generalized hyperemia, facial or laryngeal edema, pruritus, urticaria, vomiting, diarrhea, hypersalivation, respiratory distress, weak pulse, collapse, and metabolic shock.
Treatment Symptomatic: Airway support, oxygen therapy, rapid IV fluid resuscitation (crystalloids).
Causative: Epinephrine 0.01 mg/kg IM (repeat every 15–20 min if needed) — lifesaving first-line treatment; Chlorpheniramine (IM, PO) for antihistaminic effect; Dexamethasone 0.25–1 mg/kg IV to reduce inflammation and prevent biphasic reaction.
Supportive: Monitor cardiovascular and respiratory status, maintain blood pressure with vasopressors if unresponsive to fluids, provide bronchodilators (e.g., terbutaline) if bronchospasm is severe.
Rapid recognition and immediate epinephrine administration are critical for survival. Prognosis depends on severity and speed of intervention.

Feline Strongyloidiasis A parasitic infection of cats caused by Strongyloides stercoralis, transmitted through ingestion, skin penetration, or transmammary routes. The parasite colonizes the small intestine, leading to chronic gastrointestinal and systemic disturbances.
Symptoms: Blood-streaked mucoid diarrhea, chronic diarrhea, emaciation, progressive weight loss despite good appetite, fever, rapid breathing or respiratory distress (due to larval lung migration), dehydration, and poor growth in kittens.
Treatment Symptomatic: Butylscopolamine 0.1 mL/kg IV/IM or 0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID for relief of abdominal cramping; fluid and electrolyte therapy for dehydration; supportive nutritional care with highly digestible diet.
Causative: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO for 3 days (repeat after 3 weeks if fecal tests remain positive); Thiabendazole 50 mg/kg/day PO for 2 days (alternative therapy).
Supportive: Strict hygiene and sanitation to reduce environmental contamination, routine fecal monitoring until parasite clearance, isolation of infected cats, and management of secondary bacterial enteritis with appropriate antibiotics if needed.
Prognosis is favorable with proper treatment, though reinfection is common in contaminated environments.

Canine Strongyloidiasis A parasitic infection caused by Strongyloides stercoralis, transmitted via contaminated soil or through skin penetration, ingestion, or transmammary infection. The parasite establishes in the small intestine, leading to chronic gastrointestinal and systemic disease.
Symptoms: Blood-streaked mucoid diarrhea, chronic diarrhea, emaciation, weight loss despite good appetite, fever, rapid or labored breathing, dehydration, poor body condition, and failure to thrive in puppies. Severe cases may show respiratory distress due to larval migration through the lungs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Butylscopolamine 0.1 mL/kg IV/IM or 0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID for abdominal cramping and intestinal spasms; fluid therapy and electrolyte correction for dehydration; nutritional support with easily digestible diet.
Causative: Ivermectin 0.2–0.8 mg/kg SC or PO (effective against adult and migrating larvae); Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg/day PO for 5 days, repeat in 4 weeks; Mebendazole 100 mg/kg PO for 3 days, repeat weekly until fecal samples test negative.
Supportive: Regular fecal monitoring to confirm clearance, strict hygiene and disinfection of kennels to prevent reinfection, isolation of infected dogs, management of concurrent bacterial enteritis with antibiotics if secondary infection present.
Prognosis is generally good with appropriate therapy, but reinfection is common in contaminated environments.

Heat Stroke A life-threatening emergency caused by failure of thermoregulation due to excessive heat exposure or exertion in hot, humid conditions. Leads to multi-organ dysfunction if not treated rapidly.
Symptoms: Severe hyperthermia (over 41°C / 105.8°F), panting, hypersalivation, bright red or pale mucous membranes, tachycardia, vomiting, diarrhea (sometimes hemorrhagic), ataxia, collapse, seizures, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), shock, coma.
Treatment Symptomatic: Immediate active cooling — apply cool (not ice-cold) water to body, use fans, place ice packs near groin/axilla, stop when temperature reaches 39.5°C (103°F) to avoid hypothermia.
Causative: Remove from hot environment, prevent further heat exposure, provide oxygen if dyspneic, manage airway if obstructed.
Supportive: IV fluid therapy with crystalloids to correct dehydration and shock, monitor electrolytes, treat seizures (e.g., diazepam), monitor for renal failure, GI bleeding, and DIC. Broad-spectrum antibiotics may be considered if severe gut translocation suspected.
Prognosis depends on rapidity of intervention and severity of organ damage; guarded if seizures, coma, or DIC are present.

Obturator Nerve Paralysis A rare condition in dogs and cats, usually secondary to pelvic trauma, fractures, or compression of the obturator nerve. Results in impaired adduction of the hindlimbs.
Symptoms: Hind limb weakness, inability to adduct limbs properly, splaying of hind limbs on slippery surfaces, pain or discomfort in the pelvic region.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Provide non-slippery flooring, assisted standing/walking, padded bedding.
- Causative: Surgical stabilization of pelvic fractures or removal of compressive lesions if present.
- Supportive: Physiotherapy and assisted exercises, NSAIDs for pain control, vitamin B-complex supplementation. Prognosis depends on severity; mild cases may recover with supportive care.

Mycobacterial Lymphadenitis A chronic granulomatous disease caused by atypical or opportunistic mycobacteria, leading to persistent lymph node enlargement and sometimes draining fistulas. Infection often follows skin trauma, bite wounds, or contaminated injections, with slow progression.
Symptoms: Firm or fluctuant enlarged lymph nodes (often submandibular or mesenteric), draining tracts with caseous or purulent discharge, weight loss, lethargy, poor wound healing, and in advanced cases systemic illness.
Treatment Symptomatic: Surgical excision of affected lymph nodes where feasible, wound care, pain management, and nutritional support.
Causative: Combination antimicrobial therapy for prolonged periods — Clofazimine 2–12 mg/kg PO SID, Azithromycin 7 mg/kg PO SID, Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg SC/IV/PO SID. Therapy is often required for months to years.
Supportive: Regular monitoring for drug toxicity (especially hepatic and gastrointestinal), adjunctive probiotics to reduce GI side effects, and strict hygiene to minimize zoonotic risk.
Prognosis is guarded; recurrence is common and complete cure is difficult. Long-term therapy and monitoring are essential.

Pregnancy TerminationSymptoms: Pregnancy termination.
TreatmentDinoprost tromethamine injection.

Acquired Laryngeal Stenosis A narrowing of the laryngeal airway resulting from trauma, surgery, chronic inflammation, or scarring. It causes partial upper airway obstruction and can progress to life-threatening respiratory compromise if untreated.
Symptoms: Inspiratory and expiratory dyspnea (worsening with exercise, stress, or heat), noisy breathing (stridor), exercise intolerance, cyanosis in severe cases, and a history of prior laryngeal trauma or surgery.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen supplementation during respiratory distress, cage rest, avoidance of overheating or strenuous activity.
Causative: Ventral laryngotomy with removal of scar tissue, laryngeal cartilage reconstruction, or partial arytenoidectomy depending on severity.
Supportive: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO SID or Dexamethasone 1 mg/kg SC BID to reduce inflammation and edema; postoperative monitoring for aspiration pneumonia; soft food diet during recovery.
Prognosis varies: early intervention offers good outcomes, but chronic/severe stenosis may require repeated surgery or permanent tracheostomy.

Urticaria An acute hypersensitivity reaction in dogs and cats characterized by transient dermal wheals due to mast cell degranulation and histamine release.
Symptoms: Localized or generalized subdermal wheals, swelling and edema of the head or extremities, localized anaphylactic reactions, variable pruritus, possible laryngeal edema.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Diphenhydramine 1.5 mg/kg IV or IM; Prednisone 1.5 mg/kg PO SID–BID for short course.
- Causative: Identify and remove allergen/trigger (drug, insect bite, food, contact irritant).
- Supportive: Oxygen therapy if laryngeal edema, cold compresses on lesions, monitor airway. Most cases resolve within 24–48 hrs with treatment.

Canine Leproid Granuloma A nodular skin disease of dogs caused by Mycobacterium spp., typically affecting the head and ears. Cats are rarely affected.
Symptoms: Multiple firm dermal nodules on the head and dorsal ear folds; hard, painless, non-pruritic nodules; may ulcerate secondarily.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Surgical excision of localized nodules.
- Causative: Antimycobacterial therapy: Clofazimine 2–12 mg/kg PO SID for 2–6 months; combination therapy with Rifampin and Clarithromycin, or use of Moxifloxacin / Pradofloxacin as indicated.
- Supportive: Regular wound care, monitor for drug toxicity (especially hepatic function with Rifampin), ensure nutritional support. Prognosis is variable but often favorable with combined therapy.

Metronidazole ToxicityToxic reaction due to high or prolonged doses of metronidazole, affecting the central nervous system.
Symptoms:: Head tilt, ataxia, nystagmus, tremors, seizures in severe cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Discontinue or reduce metronidazole to minimum effective dose; diazepam 0.5 mg/kg IV q8h for 2–3 days may help hasten recovery.
Causative:: Eliminate drug accumulation by dose adjustment or withdrawal.
Supportive:: IV fluids, nursing care, and monitoring until neurological signs resolve (usually within 1–2 weeks).

Asymmetrical Claw Disease A painful claw disorder in dogs and cats, often associated with bacterial or fungal infections, trauma, or immune-mediated causes.
Symptoms: Lameness, pain, pruritus, swelling and edema, alopecia around digits, oozing or crusting, erosion, ulceration, necrosis, claw deformities and fragility.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Pain control (NSAIDs as tolerated), Epsom salt soaks to reduce swelling and discomfort.
- Causative: Remove severely affected claws; antimicrobial therapy such as Cephalexin 25 mg/kg PO BID or Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 20 mg/kg PO BID; antifungal therapy such as Ketoconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID for 4 months; fungal involvement may require surgical removal of P3.
- Supportive: Bandaging of paws if ulcerated, strict hygiene of the environment, nutritional support with omega-3 fatty acids and biotin supplementation to aid claw regrowth. Long-term monitoring for recurrence is advised.

Feline Bronchial Disease A chronic lower airway inflammatory condition in cats, resembling human asthma, characterized by airway hyperreactivity and mucus accumulation.
Symptoms: Persistent or intermittent cough, increased respiratory effort, open-mouth breathing, dyspnea, cyanosis, wheezing, exercise intolerance, acute respiratory distress.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy in crisis; Terbutaline 0.01 mg/kg IM/SC for bronchodilation; Dexamethasone 0.25 mg/kg IM for acute exacerbations.
- Causative: Long-term anti-inflammatory therapy with Prednisolone 2 mg/kg PO SID × 2 weeks (then taper); inhaled corticosteroids preferred for maintenance; inhaled β₂-agonists such as Salbutamol or Albuterol for bronchospasm control.
- Supportive: Minimize stress and environmental triggers (dust, smoke, aerosols); use of air humidifiers; weight management; client education for home monitoring of breathing patterns. Prognosis is good with compliance.

Hydronephrosis A condition where the kidney becomes distended due to obstruction of urine flow, leading to progressive renal damage.
Symptoms: Abdominal distension, palpable or enlarged kidney, confirmed by ultrasound or exploratory surgery.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Pain management, fluid therapy to stabilize patient prior to surgery.
- Causative: Surgical correction of underlying obstruction; in severe cases where kidney is non-functional, nephrectomy (surgical removal of affected kidney).
- Supportive: Post-operative monitoring of renal function, dietary renal support, regular ultrasound follow-ups to detect recurrence.

Liver Tumors Neoplastic growths in the liver, either primary or metastatic, impairing hepatic function.
Symptoms: Inappetence, anorexia, weight loss, vomiting, abdominal distension, terminal jaundice, elevated liver enzymes and bilirubin levels.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Appetite stimulants, antiemetics, and fluid therapy for stabilization.
- Causative: Surgical resection if localized; biopsy hepatic lymph nodes to check for metastasis; chemotherapy if indicated based on tumor type.
- Supportive: Hepatoprotective agents (e.g., SAMe, silymarin), nutritional support with high-quality easily digestible proteins, and regular monitoring of liver function.

Toxic Hepatopathy Liver dysfunction caused by exposure to hepatotoxic drugs or toxins, commonly anticonvulsants or other medications.
Symptoms: Icterus (jaundice), polyuria, polyphagia, nocturnal restlessness, panting, weight gain, ventral and lateral abdominal alopecia; history of hepatotoxic drug use.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Control of secondary complications such as nausea, vomiting, and dehydration.
- Causative: Immediate discontinuation of hepatotoxic drugs; Ursodeoxycholic acid 15 mg/kg PO SID (or divided BID).
- Supportive: S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) 18–20 mg/kg PO SID, vitamin E 10 IU/kg PO SID, dietary antioxidants, regular monitoring of liver enzymes every 2–4 weeks until stable.

Congenital Hypopituitarism (Pituitary Dwarfism) A developmental disorder due to inadequate secretion of pituitary growth hormone and other trophic hormones, leading to stunted growth and multisystemic effects.
Symptoms: Growth retardation evident by weaning, proportionate dwarfism, woolly coat, nonpruritic alopecia, delayed dentition, testicular atrophy, or estrus abnormalities.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Manage secondary dermatological issues (alopecia, skin infections), nutritional support, and general wellness monitoring.
- Causative: Porcine growth hormone (GH) therapy (limited availability); medroxyprogesterone acetate 2.5 mg/kg PO every 3 weeks, then every 6 weeks, to stimulate GH release.
- Supportive: Levothyroxine 20 μg/kg PO SID for hypothyroidism; Prednisolone 0.2 mg/kg PO SID for adrenal support. Regular monitoring of thyroid and adrenal function is essential to avoid iatrogenic complications.

Acute Hypoadrenocorticism (Addisonian Crisis)A life-threatening endocrine emergency caused by deficient production of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids, leading to severe electrolyte and fluid imbalances. Most often idiopathic or immune-mediated destruction of the adrenal cortex.
Symptoms:: Collapse under stress, weak pulse, bradycardia, vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, hypovolemic shock, abdominal pain, and hypothermia. Rapidly progressive and potentially fatal without treatment.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Aggressive IV fluid therapy with 0.9% NaCl at shock dose (90 mL/kg over 1 hour in dogs), repeat as needed to correct hypovolemia and dehydration. Monitor potassium, glucose, and ECG closely.
Causative:: Dexamethasone sodium phosphate 0.25–1 mg/kg IV (does not interfere with ACTH stimulation testing). Hydrocortisone sodium succinate 4–6 mg/kg IV q6–8h provides both glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid activity.
Supportive:: Correction of electrolyte imbalances (especially hyperkalemia and hyponatremia), management of hypoglycemia if present, and gradual transition to long-term mineralocorticoid supplementation (DOCP or fludrocortisone) and glucocorticoid therapy.
Prognosis is excellent with rapid recognition and treatment, but recurrence is likely without lifelong hormone replacement.

Primary Hypoadrenocorticism (Addison’s Disease) An endocrine disorder caused by insufficient secretion of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids, most often due to immune-mediated destruction of the adrenal cortex. It leads to impaired electrolyte balance, hypovolemia, and reduced stress tolerance.
Symptoms: Young female dogs, intermittent vomiting, anorexia, diarrhea, melena, weight loss, lethargy, hair loss, polyuria/polydipsia, waxing and waning course, collapse, hypothermia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Aggressive IV fluid therapy with 0.9% NaCl at shock doses for dehydration and hypovolemic shock. Monitor electrolytes, ECG, and vital signs closely.
Causative: Mineralocorticoid replacement: Desoxycorticosterone pivalate (DOCP) 2.2 mg/kg SC every 28 days; Fludrocortisone acetate 0.01–0.02 mg/kg PO BID if DOCP unavailable. Glucocorticoid replacement: Prednisolone 0.1–0.2 mg/kg/day PO.
Supportive: Monitor Na⁺ and K⁺ regularly, provide nutritional support, prevent stress, and maintain hydration.
Prognosis is excellent with compliant therapy; most dogs return to normal quality of life once stabilized.

Secondary Hypoadrenocorticism An endocrine disorder resulting from deficient ACTH secretion, most often due to abrupt withdrawal of chronic glucocorticoid therapy or pituitary dysfunction.
Symptoms: Depression, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, weak pulse, and collapse under stress.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilization during acute crisis with IV fluids, electrolyte correction, and monitoring of cardiovascular function.
Causative: Prednisolone 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO SID initially, with gradual tapering over weeks. Glucocorticoid replacement therapy without mineralocorticoids for long-term management.
Supportive: Stress avoidance, careful dose tapering of steroids to prevent relapse, and regular follow-up to monitor adrenal function. Prognosis depends on reversibility of pituitary damage.

Chronic Primary HypoadrenocorticismA chronic endocrine disorder caused by deficient secretion of both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids due to adrenal cortex destruction, most often immune-mediated. Leads to impaired electrolyte balance, fluid regulation, and stress response.
Symptoms:: Weakness, collapse, anorexia, vomiting, depression, dehydration, bradycardia, weak femoral pulses, potential gastrointestinal bleeding, and anemia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Stabilize with IV 0.9% NaCl to correct dehydration and shock. For hyperkalemia: Regular insulin 0.1 U/kg IV with dextrose 0.5–1 g/kg IV; Calcium gluconate 10% 0.5–1 mL/kg IV slowly to protect the myocardium; Sodium bicarbonate 1–2 mEq/kg IV if metabolic acidosis is present.
Causative:: Long-term replacement with Desoxycorticosterone pivalate (DOCP) for mineralocorticoid deficiency and prednisolone for glucocorticoid replacement, tailored to the individual’s needs.
Supportive:: Monitor electrolytes (Na⁺, K⁺) and renal function regularly, adjust therapy as needed, provide stress-dose glucocorticoids during illness or surgery, and manage concurrent GI complications.
Prognosis is excellent with consistent lifelong hormone replacement and monitoring, though relapses may occur if therapy is interrupted or improperly dosed.

Pheochromocytoma A rare catecholamine-secreting tumor of the adrenal medulla that causes episodic or sustained hypertension, arrhythmias, and systemic effects due to excess norepinephrine/epinephrine release.
Symptoms: Palpable abdominal mass, ascites, hind-limb weakness, tachycardia, arrhythmias, episodic weakness, seizures, head pressing, epistaxis, retinal hemorrhages.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pre-surgical alpha blockade with Phenoxybenzamine 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days; Emergency: Phentolamine 0.05–0.1 mg/kg IV for hypertensive crisis.
Causative: Definitive therapy is surgical adrenalectomy with careful perioperative blood pressure control and monitoring.
Supportive: Intra- and post-operative anesthesia must include invasive BP monitoring, arrhythmia management, and IV fluid stabilization.
Prognosis depends on surgical success and presence of metastasis; guarded to fair overall.

Phaeohyphomycosis An opportunistic fungal infection caused by dematiaceous (pigmented) fungi that may affect skin, subcutaneous tissues, nasal passages, or the CNS in dogs and cats.
Symptoms: Nasal discharge, ulcerated nodules on digits, pinnae, or nasal planum (especially cats), draining fistulas, and granulomatous meningoencephalitis in severe cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain management and wound care for draining tracts or ulcerated lesions.
Causative: Wide surgical excision where feasible. Itraconazole 10 mg/kg PO SID for at least 6–8 months; Posaconazole 5–15 mg/kg/day PO for non-resectable or CNS disease. Avoid voriconazole in cats due to toxicity.
Supportive: Monitor liver enzymes monthly during antifungal therapy, provide nutritional support, and manage secondary infections.
Prognosis is guarded to poor with CNS involvement; localized cutaneous disease has a better outcome if fully excised and treated with antifungals.

Primary Hyperaldosteronism A disorder caused by excessive secretion of aldosterone, usually from an adrenal cortical tumor or hyperplasia, leading to hypokalemia, hypertension, and secondary organ dysfunction (more common in cats than dogs).
Symptoms: Muscular weakness due to hypokalemia, ataxia, depressed spinal reflexes, flaccidity, ventroflexion of the neck, sudden or gradual blindness, impaired renal function, polydipsia, polyuria.
Treatment Symptomatic: Potassium supplementation (oral or IV depending on severity) to correct hypokalemia.
Causative: Unilateral adrenalectomy is the treatment of choice for adrenal tumors; medical therapy with spironolactone (aldosterone antagonist) may control hypertension and hypokalemia in non-surgical candidates.
Supportive: Monitor blood pressure, renal function, and electrolytes during stabilization and post-surgery. Manage intra- and postoperative hemorrhage risks.
Prognosis is fair with successful surgery (median survival > 1 year); guarded with advanced disease or metastatic tumors.

Insulinoma A functional pancreatic beta-cell tumor that secretes insulin, causing persistent hypoglycemia. Most are malignant with high metastatic potential (liver, lymph nodes).
Symptoms: Fatigue, generalized weakness, collapse, muscle tremors, altered behavior, confusion, disorientation, apparent blindness, ataxia, incoordination, stupor, seizures (lasting 30 sec to 5 min). Signs are often exercise- or fasting-induced.
Treatment Symptomatic: Frequent small, high-protein/high-fat meals to minimize hypoglycemic episodes.
Causative: Surgical resection of pancreatic tumor if localized and resectable.
Supportive: Prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg/day PO (stimulates gluconeogenesis and antagonizes insulin). Diazoxide or octreotide may be considered for refractory hypoglycemia. Maintain IV dextrose during crisis management.
Prognosis is guarded due to the high rate of malignancy and recurrence. Median postoperative survival is ~14 months with combined surgical and medical therapy; palliative medical management alone may extend life 6–12 months.

HypoglycemiaA condition defined as a persistent serum glucose concentration below 60 mg/dL, confirmed by repeated assays. It may result from insulinoma, xylitol toxicity, sepsis, juvenile hypoglycemia (especially toy breeds), liver failure, hypoadrenocorticism, or insulin overdose in diabetic animals.
Symptoms:: Weakness, ataxia, tremors, seizures, mental dullness or depression, collapse, increased appetite, abnormal behavior, cortical blindness, or death in severe cases. Chronic hypoglycemia may cause peripheral nerve demyelination.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Emergency IV dextrose therapy: 50% dextrose diluted 1:1 (0.5–1.0 mL/kg IV slowly), followed by CRI of 5% dextrose in fluids (e.g., D5W or by adding 25–50 mL of 50% dextrose to 1 L of fluids). Seizure control with Midazolam 0.2 mg/kg IV or intranasal, Gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO q8–12h post-episode; Butorphanol 0.2–0.4 mg/kg IM if mild sedation required.
Causative:: Address underlying conditions such as insulinoma (insulin:glucose ratio), hypoadrenocorticism (ACTH stimulation), liver dysfunction (bile acids), sepsis, or xylitol toxicity. Withdraw or adjust insulin in diabetic patients.
Supportive:: Glucagon CRI 50–150 ng/kg/min for refractory insulinoma-associated hypoglycemia. Prednisone 0.5–1.0 mg/kg PO SID for supportive management or suspected hypoadrenocorticism. Diazoxide 5–20 mg/kg PO q8h as a chronic hyperglycemic agent. Frequent monitoring of blood glucose every 2–4h during hospitalization. Prognosis varies: excellent in juvenile/stress-related hypoglycemia, guarded in insulinoma.

Angiostrongylosis A parasitic infection in dogs caused by Angiostrongylus vasorum, transmitted through ingestion of infected slugs/snails. It primarily affects the cardiopulmonary system and can cause bleeding disorders.
Symptoms: Most common in young outdoor dogs; cough, exercise intolerance, respiratory distress, hemoptysis, bleeding tendencies, lameness, neurologic signs, and syncope. Clinical signs range from subtle to life-threatening.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Corticosteroids to reduce pulmonary inflammation, oxygen therapy for respiratory distress, IV fluids to maintain perfusion, and blood transfusion if severe bleeding occurs.
- Causative: Fenbendazole 35 mg/kg PO q24h for 14 days; or Milbemycin oxime and Moxidectin spot-on formulations, sometimes in combination with Imidacloprid for parasite elimination.
- Supportive: Careful monitoring of respiratory and neurological status; limit exercise to reduce cardiopulmonary strain; repeat fecal or antigen testing to confirm parasite clearance.

Chylothorax An uncommon condition in dogs and cats where lymphatic fluid (chyle) accumulates in the pleural space, impairing respiration. Causes may include cardiac disease, trauma, neoplasia, or idiopathic origin.
Symptoms: Increased inspiratory effort, tachypnea, shallow respiration, open-mouth breathing, lethargy, coughing; with chronic cases: weight loss, inappetence, abdominal effusion, or diarrhea.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Thoracocentesis (manual drainage, up to 200× TID) to relieve dyspnea, correct electrolyte and protein imbalances, provide oxygen therapy as needed.
- Causative: Treat underlying condition (e.g., cardiac disease, thoracic duct rupture, or trauma). Surgical options include intercostal thoracotomy, thoracic duct ligation, or placement of a pleuroperitoneal shunt (Denver shunt catheter).
- Supportive: Low-fat diet to reduce lymph flow; Rutin 50 mg/kg PO TID to reduce chyle production and promote fluid absorption; long-term monitoring with imaging and thoracic taps as necessary.

Erosive Gastritis An acute or chronic inflammatory condition of the stomach characterized by mucosal erosion, often associated with toxins, drugs (NSAIDs, corticosteroids), infections, or stress. It can lead to gastrointestinal bleeding and severe discomfort in dogs and cats.
Symptoms: Hematemesis (vomiting blood), abdominal pain, recurrent vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, melena in severe cases.
Treatment - Symptomatic: Cimetidine 7 mg/kg PO/IV/IM q8h, Metoclopramide for prokinetic and antiemetic support, Ondansetron for refractory vomiting, pain management as needed.
- Causative: Remove or discontinue offending drugs (NSAIDs, corticosteroids) or dietary irritants; treat underlying infection or systemic disease if identified.
- Supportive: Domperidone 3 mg/animal PO q8h to improve gastric emptying, gastroprotectants (e.g., sucralfate slurry), bland easily digestible diet, IV fluids to maintain hydration and correct electrolyte disturbances.
Prognosis depends on cause and severity; early management improves outcomes.

Hemorrhagic Gastritis An acute or chronic condition of gastric mucosal inflammation with bleeding, often secondary to toxins, drugs (NSAIDs, corticosteroids), infection, ischemia, or severe stress. Requires prompt stabilization and targeted therapy.
Symptoms: Hematemesis (vomiting blood), melena, abdominal pain, anorexia, lethargy, dehydration; may progress to hypovolemic shock in severe cases.
Treatment - Acid suppression: Omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO/IV BID (preferred over SID for better acid control).
- Mucosal protectants: Sucralfate 0.5–1 g PO q8h (slurry form preferred).
- Adjuncts: Aluminum hydroxide 20 mg/kg PO TID (antacid, less effective than PPIs but supportive).
- Antiemetics: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC or PO SID for up to 5 days; Ondansetron may be added for refractory vomiting.
- Supportive care: IV fluids to restore hydration and perfusion, analgesics (avoid NSAIDs), blood transfusion if severe hemorrhage, bland easily digestible diet once stable.
Early intervention and removal of underlying cause improve prognosis.

Lissencephaly and Pachygyria Congenital malformations of the cerebral cortex characterized by absent (lissencephaly) or reduced (pachygyria) normal gyral folding, leading to neurological and behavioral dysfunction in dogs and cats.
Symptoms: Behavioral abnormalities (hyperexcitability, poor trainability, housebreaking difficulty), visual deficits, seizures (often starting around 6–12 months of age), circling, ataxia. Some cases present with progressive cognitive decline.
Treatment - Seizure control (acute): Diazepam 0.5–1 mg/kg IV, or Midazolam 0.2–0.3 mg/kg IV/IM for emergency management.
- Seizure control (maintenance): Phenobarbital loading dose 12 mg/kg IV divided over 1–2 h, then maintenance 2–3 mg/kg PO BID. Alternative/add-on therapy: Levetiracetam 20 mg/kg PO q8h, or Zonisamide 5–10 mg/kg PO BID.
- Supportive care: Environmental modification to reduce triggers, owner education on prognosis and seizure monitoring.
No curative treatment exists; therapy is palliative and focused on seizure reduction and quality of life. Prognosis is guarded to poor depending on severity.

Malignant Melanoma An aggressive neoplasm common in dogs (esp. oral cavity, digits, mucocutaneous junctions). Less common in cats but can occur cutaneously. High metastatic potential, particularly to lymph nodes and lungs.
Symptoms: Oral or cutaneous pigmented (sometimes amelanotic) masses, ulceration, bleeding, halitosis, dysphagia, loose teeth, lameness (if digital), enlarged regional lymph nodes, weight loss, respiratory signs if metastasis present.
Treatment - Local control: Surgical excision with wide margins is first-line for localized disease. Consider partial mandibulectomy/maxillectomy for oral tumors.
- Adjuvant therapy: Radiation therapy for non-resectable tumors or incomplete margins; palliative RT for pain control.
- Chemotherapy: Limited benefit overall. Options include Carboplatin 300 mg/m² IV q3wk or Dacarbazine 200–250 mg/m² IV q2–3wk. Responses are variable.
- Immunotherapy: Canine melanoma vaccine (Oncept®) – xenogeneic human tyrosinase DNA vaccine, approved for stage II/III oral melanoma in dogs post-surgery, to delay metastasis. Use remains controversial but may prolong survival in selected patients.
- Supportive care: Analgesia, nutritional support, antibiotics for secondary infections, management of metastatic disease.
Prognosis: Guarded to poor. Survival depends on tumor site, size, stage, and surgical margins. Oral and digital melanomas are highly aggressive with frequent metastasis; cutaneous forms may behave less aggressively.

Feline Leprosy SyndromeA chronic granulomatous skin disease of cats caused by atypical mycobacteria (e.g., Mycobacterium lepraemurium, M. avium complex). Most cases occur in outdoor cats, often linked to rodent bites or wound inoculation.
Symptoms: Painless skin nodules (often ulcerated), usually on limbs, head, or trunk; thickened skin; draining tracts; non-healing wounds; regional lymph node enlargement. Systemic signs are uncommon.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Wound care, analgesia, and monitoring for secondary infections.
Causative: Antimicrobial combinations are preferred to prevent resistance — Clofazimine 2–12 mg/kg PO BID with food, plus Clarithromycin 7.5–10 mg/kg PO SID–BID. Alternatives include Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID or Pradofloxacin as adjunct therapy.
Supportive: Surgical excision of solitary lesions when possible (often curative). Prolonged therapy (≥3–6 months, continuing 1 month past resolution) is needed for multifocal disease.
Prognosis: Good with complete excision of solitary lesions; guarded to fair for disseminated disease requiring prolonged medical management.

Vitamin D Deficiency (Rickets)A metabolic bone disease in young, rapidly growing dogs and cats caused by insufficient dietary vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus, or by malabsorption disorders.
Symptoms: Lameness, metaphyseal swelling, bone deformities (bowed limbs), delayed tooth eruption, pathologic fractures, poor growth, and reluctance to move.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Pain management, restricted activity to reduce fracture risk, and supportive nursing care.
Causative: Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3) 50 IU/kg PO SID; Calcium carbonate 50–100 mg/kg/day divided TID; Phosphorus supplementation depending on serum levels and dietary balance.
Supportive: Transition to a balanced, complete growth diet appropriate for species and age; monitor serum calcium, phosphorus, and ALP during therapy.
Prognosis: Good with early dietary correction; severe skeletal deformities may persist if not addressed promptly.

Rotavirus InfectionA contagious viral gastrointestinal infection affecting puppies and kittens, often causing acute enteritis. Disease severity depends on age, immune status, and presence of concurrent infections.
Symptoms: Acute watery diarrhea, dehydration, anorexia, lethargy, weight loss, and in severe cases hypothermia and weakness.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Fluid therapy (IV or oral) for rehydration and electrolyte correction; butylscopolamine 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID for intestinal spasm relief; antiemetics if vomiting is present.
Causative: No specific antiviral therapy; antibiotics such as cefuroxime 10–15 mg/kg PO BID may be used if secondary bacterial infection is suspected.
Supportive: Probiotics to restore intestinal flora, oral electrolyte supplementation, easily digestible diet, strict hygiene to prevent spread.
Prognosis: Generally favorable in otherwise healthy animals with prompt supportive care; more guarded in neonates or immunocompromised patients.

Nasal MelanomaA malignant tumor of melanocytes occurring in the nasal cavity of dogs and cats. It is locally invasive and often aggressive, with a high potential for recurrence and metastasis.
Symptoms: Sneezing, persistent nasal discharge (serous, mucopurulent, or bloody), epistaxis, facial deformity, stertor, and possible difficulty breathing.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Supportive care to manage nasal obstruction and secondary infections; pain management as needed.
Causative: Definitive treatment includes surgical excision when feasible, followed by adjunctive radiation therapy for local tumor control.
Supportive: Chemotherapy options include Dacarbazine 200–250 mg/m² IV q3wk or Carboplatin 300 mg/m² IV q3wk. Immunotherapy with the xenogeneic DNA melanoma vaccine (Oncept®) may be considered post-surgery or radiation to delay recurrence and metastasis.
Prognosis: Guarded to poor due to the tumor’s invasive nature and metastatic potential. Early multimodal therapy improves survival time.

Lower Respiratory Tract DiseaseA group of conditions affecting the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs in dogs and cats. Causes include bacterial or viral infections, aspiration, irritants, or chronic inflammatory disease.
Symptoms: Persistent coughing, dyspnea, exercise intolerance, abnormal lung sounds (crackles, wheezes), lethargy, and in severe cases cyanosis or respiratory distress.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Bromhexine 0.5–1 mg/kg PO or IM BID to enhance mucociliary clearance, oxygen therapy, nebulization with sterile saline or bronchodilators for airway support.
Causative: Antibiotic therapy tailored to suspected or confirmed infection: Clarithromycin 8 mg/kg IV BID or 15–25 mg/kg PO BID; Cefixime 12.5 mg/kg PO BID for 7–14 days. Adjust treatment based on culture and sensitivity when possible.
Supportive: Environmental control (avoid smoke, dust, irritants), adequate hydration, and nutritional support to aid recovery.
Prognosis: Varies depending on underlying cause; infectious cases often respond well to therapy, while chronic inflammatory disease may require long-term management.

Entamoeba InfectionA protozoal infection of the gastrointestinal tract caused by Entamoeba histolytica and related species, primarily affecting dogs and cats in areas with poor sanitation or exposure to contaminated water/food.
Symptoms: Bloody-mucoid diarrhea, tenesmus, abdominal pain, anorexia, dehydration, weight loss, and in severe cases systemic illness due to invasive disease.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Butylscopolamine 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID to control colic and relieve tenesmus; fluid therapy and electrolyte correction for dehydration.
Causative: Metronidazole 25–30 mg/kg PO BID for 5–10 days as the drug of choice; alternative is Furazolidone 2.2 mg/kg PO q8h for 7 days.
Supportive: Provide easily digestible diet, probiotics to restore gut flora, and general supportive care to aid intestinal healing.
Prognosis: Good with early treatment, but recurrence may occur if environmental contamination persists.

Feline BalantidiasisA protozoal infection caused by Balantidium coli, often associated with exposure to swine. Primarily affects the large intestine.
Symptoms:: History of contact with swine, hemorrhagic large bowel diarrhea, mucoid or bloody feces, dehydration, weight loss.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Fluid therapy and electrolyte correction to manage dehydration.
Causative:: Antiprotozoal therapy — Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO q24h; Metronidazole 25 mg/kg PO q12h; Nitazoxanide 100 mg/animal PO q12h; Tinidazole 30 mg/kg PO q24h; Furazolidone 4 mg/kg PO q12h.
Supportive:: Nutritional support and monitoring for secondary bacterial infections.

Canine BalantidiasisA protozoal infection caused by Balantidium coli, usually associated with contact with swine and affecting the large intestine.
Symptoms:: History of contact with swine, hemorrhagic large bowel diarrhea, mucoid or bloody feces, dehydration, weight loss.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Fluid and electrolyte therapy to manage dehydration and shock.
Causative:: Antiprotozoal drugs — Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO q24h; Metronidazole 25 mg/kg PO q12h; Nitazoxanide 100 mg/animal PO q12h; Ipronidazole 126 mg/L PO ad libitum; Tinidazole 44 mg/kg PO q24h; Quinacrine 9 mg/kg PO q24h; Thiabendazole 50 mg/kg PO daily for 2 days.
Supportive:: Nutritional support, good hygiene, and monitoring for relapse or secondary infections.

Whipworm InfestationCaused by Trichuris vulpis in dogs, affecting the large intestine and leading to chronic colitis.
Symptoms:: Mucoid large bowel-type diarrhea, tenesmus, weight loss, anemia in heavy infestations.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Butylscopolamine 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID to relieve colic.
Causative:: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID × 3 days; Febantel 25 mg/kg PO SID × 3 days (often in combination dewormers). Repeat treatment at 3 and 12 weeks to target re-infection.
Supportive:: Fluid/electrolyte therapy for dehydrated dogs, high-fiber diet to restore colon health, strict sanitation to prevent reinfection.

Feline LymphomaCommon hematopoietic malignancy in cats, may affect gastrointestinal tract, mediastinum, or multicentric organs; can present with systemic signs like anorexia, weight loss, vomiting, or skin/mucous membrane lesions.
Symptoms:: Erosions and ulcers of skin and mucous membranes, lethargy, inappetence, weight loss, vomiting.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care—fluids, nutritional support, antiemetics as needed.
Causative:: Multi-agent chemotherapy protocol (CHOP): cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin 30 mg/m² IV q3wk, vincristine, prednisolone; alternatively, epirubicin 3 mg/m² slow IV q3wk (premedicate with chlorphenamine or dexamethasone).
Supportive:: Monitor CBC, liver, and renal function; antiemetics, appetite stimulants, and infection prevention during chemotherapy.

Tracheal NeoplasiaA rare tumor of the trachea in dogs and cats that can cause progressive airway obstruction.
Symptoms:: Cough, dyspnea, wheezing, and exercise intolerance; severe cases may show stridor and respiratory distress.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Palliative care with bronchodilators, oxygen supplementation, and cough suppressants.
Causative:: Codeine 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID; Carboplatin 200–300 mg/m² IV q3–4 weeks; Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive:: Monitor airway patency; surgical debulking or intraluminal stenting may be considered in advanced cases to relieve obstruction.

Bronchial CompressionA condition caused by extraluminal pressure on the bronchi, most commonly due to left atrial enlargement in congestive heart failure or hilar lymphadenopathy from neoplasia.
Symptoms:: Chronic cough, exercise intolerance, dyspnea; in severe cases, wheezing or respiratory distress.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Codeine 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID for cough suppression.
Causative:: Treat the underlying disorder — diuretics (e.g., furosemide) for CHF; chemotherapy, radiation, or surgical excision for neoplastic lymphadenopathy.
Supportive:: Bronchodilators, oxygen therapy if needed, and regular monitoring of cardiopulmonary status.

Foreign Body InhalationObstruction of the trachea or bronchi caused by inhaled material such as grass awns, seeds, or small objects.
Symptoms:: Acute onset of paroxysmal cough, gagging, dyspnea, wheezing; in severe cases, cyanosis or respiratory distress.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Codeine 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID to reduce cough until definitive intervention.
Causative:: Endoscopic retrieval of the foreign object is preferred; surgical removal (thoracotomy) if endoscopy fails.
Supportive:: Oxygen therapy, bronchodilators, and antibiotics if secondary infection or aspiration pneumonia is present.

Tracheal StenosisA narrowing of the tracheal lumen due to congenital malformation or acquired trauma, leading to airflow obstruction.
Symptoms:: Persistent cough, increased inspiratory effort and duration, exercise intolerance, stridor, and possible cyanosis in severe cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen supplementation, antitussives, and bronchodilators to reduce respiratory distress.
Causative:: Surgical resection and anastomosis is the treatment of choice for focal lesions.
Supportive:: Minimally invasive options such as balloon dilation, bougienage, or laser resection may provide temporary or adjunctive relief depending on case severity and lesion length.

BronchiectasisA chronic, irreversible dilatation of bronchi and bronchioles associated with chronic infection, inflammation, or obstruction.
Symptoms:: Chronic productive cough, hemoptysis, gagging, tachypnea, dyspnea, moist crackles, and expiratory wheezes.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Cough suppressants, bronchodilators (aminophylline 11 mg/kg PO TID in dogs; theophylline 20 mg/kg PO SID at night in cats), and nebulization for airway clearance.
Causative:: Antimicrobial therapy such as doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO SID or clindamycin 10 mg/kg PO BID, tailored based on culture and sensitivity.
Supportive:: Environmental control (avoid smoke, dust, or irritants), chest physiotherapy to enhance secretion clearance, and long-term monitoring for secondary infections.

Oslerus osleri InfectionA parasitic infection of dogs caused by Oslerus osleri, leading to nodular lesions in the trachea and bronchi.
Symptoms:: Chronic cough associated with tracheobronchial nodules; may cause exercise intolerance and respiratory distress in severe cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Codeine for cough relief.
Causative:: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO daily for 7 days, repeated after 3 weeks to target parasite life cycle.
Supportive:: Monitoring for secondary bacterial infection; supportive care with rest and reduced exercise during recovery.

Helicobacter-Associated DiseaseA gastric infection associated with Helicobacter spp. leading to chronic gastritis and ulceration.
Symptoms:: Hematemesis, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and progressive weight loss.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Omeprazole 0.7 mg/kg PO SID for acid suppression and mucosal protection.
Causative:: Clarithromycin 8 mg/kg IV BID or 15–25 mg/kg PO BID in combination with Amoxicillin 20 mg/kg PO BID as part of triple therapy.
Supportive:: Dietary modification to highly digestible diets; antiemetics for vomiting control; hydration and electrolyte support in severe cases.

Adverse Food ReactionAn abnormal immunologic or non-immunologic response to dietary components leading to gastrointestinal and dermatologic signs.
Symptoms:: Flatulence, vomiting, diarrhea, pruritus, macules, papules, pustules, alopecia, and recurrent ear infections.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Butylscopolamine 0.5 mg/kg PO BID; Diphenoxylate 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO TID for diarrhea; Cefuroxime 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for secondary bacterial infections.
Causative:: Elimination diet with novel or hydrolyzed protein source to identify allergens.
Supportive:: Long-term diet modification once allergen identified. Prognosis excellent with strict dietary control.

Ptyalism (Excessive Salivation)A condition characterized by abnormal hypersalivation due to oral, salivary gland, or systemic disorders.
Symptoms:: Excessive salivation, changes in salivary gland size or shape, facial pain, pawing at face, anorexia, and dysphagia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Glycopyrrolate 0.01 mg/kg SC PRN; Atropine 0.02–0.04 mg/kg SC PRN or 0.04 mg/kg PO TID–QID.
Causative:: Treatment directed at underlying cause (e.g., dental disease, toxin ingestion, oral ulcers).
Supportive:: Ligation of parotid duct in refractory or structural cases.

Behavioral Stress (Fear/Excitement)A stress-related condition triggered by fear, excitement, or exposure to strangers/unfamiliar environments.
Symptoms:: Fear, excitement, restlessness, anxiety, or stress-induced behavioral changes.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Lorazepam 0.05–0.25 mg/kg PO BID for acute anxiety relief.
Causative:: Environmental modification, behavioral training, desensitization, and controlled exposure to stressors.
Supportive:: Owner reassurance, pheromone therapy, and long-term behavior modification strategies.

Diabetic NeuropathyA complication of chronic diabetes mellitus, more common in cats, leading to lameness and neurological deficits.
Symptoms:: Progressive lameness, plantigrade stance (cats), weakness in hind limbs.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care for mobility and comfort.
Causative:: Glipizide 0.25–0.5 mg/kg PO BID (cats only, for diabetes control); insulin therapy if oral hypoglycemics are insufficient.
Supportive:: Dietary management with high-protein/low-carbohydrate diet; physical therapy to maintain limb strength.

Middle Ear Tumor A neoplastic condition of the middle ear, often involving ceruminous gland adenocarcinoma.
Symptoms: Head tilt and neurologic signs due to vestibular involvement.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics and anti-inflammatory therapy for pain and discomfort.
Causative: Chemotherapy with Carboplatin 0.12 mg/kg/m² IV every 3–4 weeks; surgical excision when possible.
Supportive: Nutritional support, wound care, and management of secondary infections.

Bone Fracture A break in bone continuity caused by trauma, metabolic disease, or pathological conditions.
Symptoms: Lameness, swelling, pain, crepitation, limb deformity, and trauma-related wounds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics and anesthesia for pain control; temporary stabilization to prevent further injury.
Causative: Definitive repair with splints, casts, internal implants, external fixators, or bone grafts depending on fracture type.
Supportive: Antibiotic prophylaxis (Cephalosporin 22 mg/kg IV q2h), wound care, restricted activity, and physiotherapy during recovery.

Allergic Pneumonitis An immune-mediated pulmonary hypersensitivity response, often triggered by inhaled allergens such as dust, mold, or environmental pollutants. Can result in chronic airway inflammation.
Symptoms:: Chronic cough, weight loss, tachypnea, dyspnea, wheezing, and exercise intolerance. In severe cases, respiratory distress may occur.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Bromhexine 8 mg/dog IM BID or 2 mg PO BID to promote mucus clearance; Aminophylline tablets to improve bronchodilation and respiratory effort.
Causative:: Prednisolone 2 mg/kg PO to reduce immune-mediated inflammation in the lungs. Identify and limit exposure to suspected allergens.
Supportive:: Maintain environmental control to minimize airborne irritants, provide oxygen therapy if hypoxic, and monitor respiratory parameters regularly.

Fibrosarcoma A malignant tumor of mesenchymal origin, often locally invasive and commonly occurring in the nasal cavity, oral cavity, or soft tissues.
Symptoms:: Sneezing, unilateral or bilateral nasal discharge (may be serous, mucopurulent, or bloody), facial deformity, and respiratory noise depending on tumor location and size.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Manage nasal congestion and discharge with saline flushes and mucolytics if necessary.
Causative:: Cisplatin 60 mg/m² IV every 3–4 weeks. Use with extreme caution in cats due to high risk of pulmonary toxicity. Surgical excision and/or radiation therapy may be necessary for localized control.
Supportive:: Provide analgesics for pain management and nutritional support. Monitor for metastasis with imaging and consider adjunct therapies as needed.

Allergic Rhinitis and Sinusitis An inflammatory condition of the upper respiratory tract often triggered by allergens.
Symptoms: Sneezing, gagging, serous to mucopurulent nasal discharge, nasal allergy signs, bilateral discharge, nares ulceration, facial asymmetry, and airway obstruction.
Treatment Symptomatic: Bromhexine 8 mg/dog IM BID or 2 mg PO BID to improve mucociliary clearance.
Causative: Prednisolone 1–3 mg/kg PO SID with tapering to reduce inflammation.
Supportive: Cyproheptadine 2 mg PO SID for antihistamine and anti-allergic effect.

Muscle Rupture (Trauma) Damage to skeletal muscle fibers following blunt trauma or overstretching.
Symptoms: Lameness, localized swelling, or pain following trauma.
Treatment Supportive: Rest, analgesia, and physiotherapy as indicated.
Nutritional: Vitamin E 10–20 IU/kg PO SID for muscle support.
Surgical: Exploration and repair may be required in cases of complete rupture.

Chronic Parasitism (Hookworm) A persistent gastrointestinal parasitism leading to malnutrition and chronic illness.
Symptoms: Chronic diarrhea, weight loss, poor coat condition, and possible anemia.
Treatment Causative: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID × 3 days or Milbemycin 0.5 mg/kg PO once.
Symptomatic: Butylscopolamine 0.1 mL/kg IV/IM BID or 0.5 mg/kg PO BID for relief of intestinal cramping.
Supportive: Nutritional support and correction of dehydration or anemia if present.

Bacterial Pneumonia A bacterial infection of the lungs often secondary to aspiration, viral infection, or immunosuppression.
Symptoms: Chronic cough, tachypnea, respiratory distress, mucopurulent nasal discharge, fever, lethargy, history of vomiting/regurgitation, wheezing, and weight loss.
Treatment Causative: Cephalexin 30 mg/kg PO TID; Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine 20 mg/kg PO BID; Doxycycline (dogs: 10 mg/kg PO BID; cats: 5 mg/kg PO BID); Amoxicillin-clavulanate 25 mg/kg PO TID.
Symptomatic: Aminophylline (dogs: 8 mg/kg PO TID; cats: 6 mg/kg PO BID); Terbutaline (dogs: 3 mg PO BID; cats: 1 mg PO BID); Albuterol 50 mcg/kg PO TID.
Supportive: Airway hydration, bronchodilators, and IV fluid therapy to stabilize and improve oxygenation.

Clonidine Overdose / CNS Benzodiazepine Effect A toxicological emergency caused by excessive clonidine or similar sedative drugs affecting the CNS.
Symptoms: Fear, agitation, or paradoxical excitement.
Treatment Causative: Naloxone 0.04 mg/kg IV, IM, or SC as a specific antidote.
Supportive: Monitoring of cardiovascular and CNS function, with fluid therapy if indicated.

Feline Bronchial Syndrome A chronic inflammatory airway disease of cats resembling feline asthma.
Symptoms: Cough, increased respiratory effort, wheezing, exercise intolerance, respiratory distress, open-mouth breathing, dyspnea, and cyanosis in severe cases.
Treatment Symptomatic (Acute): Terbutaline 0.01 mg/kg IV/IM/SC; Dexamethasone 0.25 mg/kg IV/IM.
Causative: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO q24h for 2 weeks, followed by tapering.
Supportive (Long-term): Inhaled bronchodilators (Salbutamol, Albuterol) and corticosteroid therapy with Fluticasone propionate; environmental allergen reduction and stress minimization.

Neorickettsia helminthoeca Infection A rickettsial infection transmitted by ingestion of fluke-infested salmon(Salmon Poisoning), causing salmon poisoning disease in dogs.
Symptoms:: Melena (black tarry feces), gastrointestinal upset, fever, and lymphadenopathy.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Management of gastrointestinal upset and systemic illness as needed.
Causative:: Erythromycin 10–20 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive:: Fluid therapy and electrolyte balance to correct dehydration and systemic effects.

Postsinusoidal Portal Hypertension A vascular disorder causing increased pressure in the portal vein beyond the hepatic sinusoids, often leading to ascites.
Symptoms:: Abdominal distension and fluid accumulation (transudate).
Treatment Symptomatic:: Management of ascites via paracentesis if severe.
Causative:: Reduction of portal hypertension and vascular resistance.
Supportive:: Amlodipine 1 mg/kg/day; Hydralazine 2 mg/kg BID; Prazosin 3 mg PO 1–2 times/day; Phenoxybenzamine 0.25–2 mg/kg PO BID.

Giardiasis An intestinal protozoal infection caused by Giardia spp., affecting dogs and cats with gastrointestinal signs.
Symptoms:: Small-bowel diarrhea (acute or chronic), weight loss, vomiting (especially in cats), and rarely intermittent large-bowel diarrhea.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Hydration and nutritional support.
Causative:: Metronidazole 20 mg/kg PO BID for 7 days; Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 5 days; Albendazole 25 mg/kg PO BID for 2 days (dogs only); combination of Praziquantel, Pyrantel pamoate, and Febantel PO for 3–5 days.
Supportive:: Environmental hygiene to prevent reinfection and promote recovery.

Feline Amoebiasis A protozoal intestinal infection in cats caused by Entamoeba spp., leading to colitis and gastrointestinal upset.
Symptoms:: Hemorrhagic large bowel diarrhea and bloody diarrhea.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Fluid therapy and supportive management of diarrhea.
Causative:: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO q24h; Metronidazole 25 mg/kg PO q12h; Nitazoxanide 100 mg/animal PO q12h; Tinidazole 30 mg/kg PO q24h; Furazolidone 4 mg/kg PO q12h.
Supportive:: Nutritional support and prevention of reinfection through hygiene and sanitation.

Canine Amoebiasis A protozoal intestinal infection in dogs caused by Entamoeba spp., leading to large bowel disease.
Symptoms:: Hemorrhagic large bowel diarrhea and bloody diarrhea.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Supportive care with hydration and electrolyte balance.
Causative:: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO q24h; Metronidazole 25 mg/kg PO q12h; Nitazoxanide 100 mg/animal PO q12h; Ipronidazole 126 mg/L PO ad libitum; Tinidazole 44 mg/kg PO q24h; Quinacrine 9 mg/kg PO q24h.
Supportive:: Nutritional support and monitoring for secondary bacterial overgrowth.

Blastocystosis (Dog) An intestinal protozoal infection caused by Blastocystis spp., affecting the gastrointestinal tract and associated with digestive insufficiency.
Symptoms:: Diarrhea and pancreatic exocrine insufficiency.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Supportive fluid therapy and dietary management.
Causative:: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO q24h; Metronidazole 25 mg/kg PO q12h; Nitazoxanide 100 mg/animal PO q12h; Ipronidazole 126 mg/L PO ad libitum; Tinidazole 44 mg/kg PO q24h; Quinacrine 9 mg/kg PO q24h.
Supportive:: Nutritional support and management of secondary gastrointestinal complications.

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) A life-threatening respiratory condition characterized by non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema and severe hypoxemia, often secondary to systemic illness or trauma.
Symptoms:: Edema, acute severe respiratory distress, tachypnea, tachycardia, anxiety, agitation, crackles and wheezes (especially on expiration), and quieter lung sounds (may indicate hypovolemia).
Treatment Symptomatic:: Oxygen therapy via nasal cannula, Elizabethan collar, or oxygen cage; positive end-expiratory pressure in severe cases.
Supportive:: Fluid therapy, diuretics, and nitric oxide administration to improve oxygenation.
Adjunctive:: Bromhexine 2 mg PO BID to reduce mucus viscosity and improve airway clearance.

Obstructive Cardiac Disease A cardiovascular disorder characterized by obstruction to blood flow within the heart, leading to reduced cardiac output and compensatory changes.
Symptoms:: Panting and exercise intolerance, which may worsen with stress or exertion.
Treatment Causative:: Atenolol 1 mg/kg PO BID to reduce heart rate and myocardial oxygen demand.
Supportive:: Enalapril 0.25–1 mg/kg PO BID as an ACE inhibitor to reduce afterload and improve cardiac function.

Hypercalcemia A metabolic condition characterized by elevated serum calcium levels, often secondary to neoplasia, renal disease, or hyperparathyroidism.
Symptoms:: Constipation, polydipsia, polyuria, anorexia, vomiting, weakness, depression, muscle twitching, seizures, and cardiac arrhythmias.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Sodium bicarbonate IV to correct metabolic acidosis; Furosemide to enhance calcium excretion; Bisacodyl 0.12 mg/kg PO as needed for constipation.
Causative:: Clodronate 5–14 mg/kg slow IV over 2 hours or 10–30 mg/kg PO BID; Calcitonin for calcium regulation.
Supportive:: Glucocorticoids to reduce calcium absorption and bone resorption; Amiodarone 0.10–0.12 mg/kg PO BID if cardiac arrhythmias are present.

Chronic Bronchitis A long-term inflammatory condition of the lower airways in dogs, often idiopathic, leading to persistent cough and progressive airway damage.
Symptoms:: Persistent productive or nonproductive cough, exercise intolerance, respiratory distress (worsening with excitement), increased wheezes and crackles on auscultation, and retching after coughing.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Avoid airway irritants, control body weight, and maintain dental hygiene. Avoid cough suppressants in cases of productive cough.
Causative:: Anti-inflammatory therapy with Dexamethasone 0.2 mg/kg (IM or PO BID) or inhaled corticosteroid Fluticasone propionate 110 mcg BID.
Supportive:: Antibiotics such as Doxycycline or Clindamycin if secondary bacterial infection is suspected; bronchodilators such as Theophylline.
Adjunctive:: Cough suppressants for nonproductive cough: Butorphanol 1 mg/kg PO BID; Hydrocodone 0.22 mg/kg PO BID.

Yellow Fat Disease (Steatitis) An inflammatory condition of fat tissue in cats, often linked to high unsaturated fat diets with low vitamin E levels.
Symptoms: Fever, anorexia, obesity (especially in young cats), reluctance to move, and pain on palpation of back and abdomen.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics and anti-inflammatory measures for pain and fever.
Causative: Vitamin E supplementation 30 mg daily to correct deficiency.
Supportive: Dietary correction and nursing care to prevent recurrence.

Sino-atrial Arrest A cardiac conduction abnormality characterized by intermittent failure of impulse generation at the sinoatrial node.
Symptoms: Sinus tachycardia, anuria, oliguria, and associated cardiopulmonary disorders.
Treatment Symptomatic: Management of bradyarrhythmia-related clinical signs.
Causative: Address underlying cardiopulmonary disorder.
Supportive: Glycopyrrolate 0.011 mg/kg IV, IM, or SC to restore cardiac rhythm.

Penile Neoplasia A malignant or benign tumor affecting the penis, frequently associated with discharge and urinary tract signs.
Symptoms: Mucopurulent or serosanguinous preputial discharge and hematuria.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain relief and control of urinary tract infection or inflammation.
Causative: Chemotherapy with Vincristine sulfate; Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO once daily.
Supportive: General supportive care and monitoring for systemic effects.

Rodenticide Poisoning A toxic condition caused by ingestion of rodent poisons, resulting in gastrointestinal, renal, and neurological disturbances.
Symptoms: Anorexia, CNS depression, vomiting, muscle weakness, constipation, bloody diarrhea, and polyuria/polydipsia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Loperamide (Decotil) 0.2 mg/kg PO BID for diarrhea; Bisacodyl (Dalax) 0.12 mg/kg PO as needed for constipation.
Causative: Specific antidote depending on rodenticide type (e.g., Vitamin K1 for anticoagulants).
Supportive: IV fluids, electrolyte correction, and monitoring of renal and hepatic function.

Flea Allergy Dermatitis A hypersensitivity reaction to flea saliva, one of the most common causes of pruritus in dogs and cats.
Symptoms: Pruritus, restlessness, scratching, rubbing, alopecia, papules, and reddish-brown crusts.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antihistamines, corticosteroids, and topical soothing agents for pruritus.
Causative: Strict flea control with Pyrethroid spot-on or pour-on formulations.
Supportive: Treatment of secondary bacterial or yeast infections, nutritional support for coat recovery.

Pyothorax A severe pleural infection characterized by accumulation of pus within the thoracic cavity.
Symptoms: Dullness, lethargy, fever, dyspnea, open-mouth breathing, abducted elbows, cyanosis, and diminished lung and heart sounds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy and analgesia for respiratory distress.
Causative: Antibiotics such as Penicillin or cephalosporin combined with Clindamycin.
Supportive: Thoracostomy drain placement with pleural lavage using 0.9% saline (15 ml/kg, 4×/day), with Heparin 5 U/ml added to prevent fibrin deposition.

Pulmonary Emphysema A chronic respiratory disorder characterized by overinflation of alveoli and loss of pulmonary elasticity, leading to impaired gas exchange.
Symptoms: Exercise-induced respiratory distress, tachypnea, labored breathing, and crackles on auscultation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen supplementation during acute respiratory distress episodes.
Causative: Bronchodilators such as Aminophylline to relieve airway constriction.
Supportive: Weight management, reduced physical stress, and environmental control (avoiding dust, smoke, or allergens).

Viral Meningomyelitis A progressive inflammatory disorder of the CNS caused by viral pathogens, often in young to middle-aged cats.
Symptoms: Insidious onset with hyperesthesia, progressive paraparesis or paralysis, multiorgan involvement, and neurological signs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain management and supportive nursing care for neurologic dysfunction.
Causative: Prednisolone 3 mg/kg PO SID and Cyclophosphamide 2 mg/kg PO SID (4 days per week) to suppress immune-mediated inflammation.
Supportive: Hydration, assisted feeding, and physiotherapy to maintain muscle function during recovery.

Bacterial and Fungal Meningomyelitis Inflammatory CNS disease caused by bacterial or fungal pathogens, presenting with variable clinical progression.
Symptoms: Acute neurological deficits, intermittent fever, and rapidly or slowly progressive CNS dysfunction depending on pathogen type.
Treatment Symptomatic: Seizure control, anti-inflammatory agents, and supportive care for neurologic stabilization.
Causative: Bacterial: Penicillin 25 mg/kg IV/IM/PO BID; Cefotaxime 30 mg/kg IM/IV/SC TID; Ceftazidime 30 mg/kg IV BID; Metronidazole 10 mg/kg IV/PO TID; Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine 0.12 mg/kg SC/PO BID.
Fungal: Amphotericin B 0.4 mg/kg IV (3×/week); Rifampin 0.12 mg/kg PO TID; Ketoconazole 20 mg/kg PO BID (2 months); Fluconazole 4 mg/kg PO/IV BID.
Supportive: Fluid therapy, nutritional support, and long-term monitoring for recurrence or systemic involvement.

Cardiac Tamponade A life-threatening condition where fluid accumulation in the pericardial sac impairs cardiac filling and causes cardiovascular collapse.
Symptoms: Cardiovascular collapse, muffled heart sounds, weak pulses, jugular distension.
Treatment Symptomatic: Emergency stabilization with oxygen therapy and IV fluids.
Causative: Enalapril 0.25–1 mg/kg PO BID; Epinephrine 0.01 mg/kg IV every 3–5 minutes; Vasopressin 0.2–0.8 U/kg IV if no response to epinephrine; definitive treatment with pericardiocentesis.
Supportive: Continuous ECG monitoring, restricted activity, and management of underlying cause (e.g., neoplasia, pericarditis).

Nasal Congestion A common upper respiratory symptom often due to infection, allergy, or inflammation of nasal mucosa.
Symptoms: Sneezing, nasal discharge, noisy breathing.
Treatment Symptomatic: Saline nasal drops and humidification to ease congestion.
Causative: Ephedrine 1 mg/kg PO BID to relieve nasal obstruction.
Supportive: Rest, hydration, and treatment of underlying infectious or allergic cause if present.

Hypotension During Anaesthesia A frequent anesthetic complication due to vasodilation, hypovolemia, or myocardial depression.
Symptoms: Sinus tachycardia, hypotension, weak pulses, delayed capillary refill.
Treatment Symptomatic: Immediate reduction of anesthetic depth and IV fluid bolus.
Causative: Ephedrine 1 mg/kg PO BID to increase blood pressure via vasoconstriction and cardiac stimulation.
Supportive: Oxygen supplementation, heat support, and close blood pressure monitoring.

Canine Parvoviral Enteritis A highly contagious viral disease in puppies causing severe gastroenteritis and dehydration.
Symptoms: 4–12 week old puppies, anorexia, vomiting, foul-smelling bloody diarrhea, rapid dehydration, fever, lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anti-emetics such as Metoclopramide 0.3 mg/kg PO/IV/SC/IM TID–QID; hydrogen peroxide spray for surface disinfection.
Causative: Broad-spectrum antibiotics: Amoxicillin–clavulanic acid 16 mg/kg IV q12h; Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg q24h.
Supportive: Aggressive fluid and electrolyte replacement (crystalloids and colloids), small frequent feedings, and nutritional support.

Neoplasia Abnormal tissue growth that can be benign or malignant, affecting multiple organ systems.
Symptoms: Edema, blindness, cachexia, cranial nerve dysfunction, polyuria, abdominal pain, hematemesis, hematuria, ascites, abdominal distension.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics for pain relief and antiemetics for vomiting.
Causative: Chemotherapy agents: Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO once daily; Vincristine sulfate.
Supportive: Nutritional support, hydration, and management of paraneoplastic syndromes.

Parasitic Vomiting Gastrointestinal irritation caused by parasitic infestation leading to vomiting.
Symptoms: Vomiting, anorexia, weight loss, poor coat condition.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antiemetics such as Domperidone 3 mg/animal PO q8h, Metoclopramide, or Ondansetron.
Causative: Appropriate Anthelmintics to eliminate parasitic infestation.
Supportive: Nutritional support, hydration, and routine deworming schedule to prevent recurrence.

GI Tract Obstruction or Disorders A condition where partial or complete obstruction of the gastrointestinal tract leads to impaired motility and vomiting.
Symptoms: Vomiting, abdominal discomfort, inappetence, dehydration.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antiemetics such as Domperidone 3 mg/animal PO q8h, Metoclopramide, or Ondansetron.
Causative: Surgical removal of obstruction or correction of underlying GI disorder.
Supportive: Fluid therapy, electrolyte correction, and nutritional support post-recovery.

Intestinal Motility Disorders Disorders of coordinated peristalsis leading to delayed or abnormal passage of intestinal contents.
Symptoms: Vomiting, bloating, abdominal discomfort, constipation or diarrhea depending on motility type.
Treatment Symptomatic: Domperidone 3 mg/animal PO q8h to promote motility.
Causative: Metoclopramide 0.25–0.5 mg/animal PO/IV/IM/SC BID as a prokinetic to restore normal motility.
Supportive: Dietary modification, hydration, and management of any underlying metabolic or neurological causes.

Immune-mediated Polyarthritis A systemic immune-mediated condition affecting multiple joints, leading to inflammation and lameness.
Symptoms: Lameness, joint pain, swelling, fever, enlarged lymph nodes, lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs such as Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO once daily or Naproxen 2 mg/kg PO q48h for pain and inflammation.
Causative: Immunosuppressive therapy: Azathioprine(Imuran) 2 mg/kg PO SID or Cyclosporine 3.3–6.7 mg/kg PO once daily for 30 days.
Supportive: Cinchophen 25 mg/kg PO BID for additional anti-inflammatory action, physical rest, and physiotherapy when stabilized.

Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency A disorder where insufficient pancreatic enzyme secretion causes maldigestion and chronic diarrhea.
Symptoms: Chronic diarrhea, weight loss, poor coat condition, increased appetite but poor nutrient absorption.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antispasmodics such as Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.1 mL/kg IV/IM BID or 0.5 mg/kg PO/IM BID for abdominal discomfort.
Causative: Enzyme replacement therapy (not listed in your entry but standard for condition).
Supportive: Folic acid 0.4 mg PO once daily, highly digestible low-fat diet, vitamin supplementation, and routine monitoring.

Autoimmune Skin Disease Immune-mediated dermatoses that may manifest as genital lesions and systemic skin changes.
Symptoms: Genital dermatoses, ulceration, possible crusts or alopecia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical care for lesions if secondary infection develops.
Causative: Immunosuppressive therapy with Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID, or Gold sodium thiomalate 1–5 mg IM (test dose), followed by 1 mg/kg IM once weekly.
Supportive: Monitoring for drug toxicity, nutritional support, and adjunct skin care.

Toxin-induced Ptyalism Excessive salivation due to toxin ingestion or exposure.
Symptoms: Profuse salivation, oral irritation, possible systemic signs depending on toxin.
Treatment Symptomatic: Atropine 0.2–0.5 mg/kg (¼ IV, ¾ IM/SC) to reduce salivation.
Causative: Activated charcoal PO to bind ingested toxin and prevent absorption.
Supportive: IV fluids, monitoring for systemic toxicity, and supportive care for affected organs.

Liver Cirrhosis A chronic, progressive liver disease characterized by fibrosis and impaired hepatic function.
Symptoms: Ascites, peripheral edema, weight loss, jaundice, lethargy, vomiting, PU/PD, coagulopathy, hepatic encephalopathy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Lactulose 0.5–1 mL/kg PO TID for hepatic encephalopathy; Vitamin K1 2.5 mg/kg SC SID for coagulopathy.
Causative: Ursodeoxycholic acid 10–15 mg/kg PO SID and S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) 18–20 mg/kg PO SID to support hepatocellular function and reduce fibrosis progression.
Supportive: Low-sodium diet, Spironolactone 2–4 mg/kg PO SID–BID (preferred diuretic), Furosemide 1–2 mg/kg PO SID–BID (cautiously), regular monitoring of liver enzymes and electrolytes, and nutritional support.

Canine Vaginitis Perineal irritation, vulval licking, rubbing the perineal area, vulval discharge, discomfort during or after urination, reluctance to mate, painful edematous vagina; may occur at any age or in spayed females.
Treatment Symptomatic: Ketoprofen 2 mg/kg/day IM or SC for pain relief.
Causative: Intrauterine chlortetracycline bolus, oral oxytetracycline capsules, vaginal application of oily antibiotic via catheter to treat infection.
Supportive: Estrogens to support natural defense systems; stress avoidance and hygiene maintenance.

Anterior Hypothalamic Lesion–Induced Hyperthermia Marked hyperthermia due to hypothalamic lesion.
Treatment Symptomatic: Cooling measures to reduce body temperature.
Causative: Dantrolene 1 mg/kg PO BID or 3 mg/kg IV to directly reduce muscle-related hyperthermia.
Supportive: Hydration and monitoring of organ function.

Canine Malignant Hyperthermia Males and heavily muscled dogs; tachycardia, tachypnea, pyrexia, muscle cramping, generalized rigidity, respiratory distress.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stop anesthesia, provide high-flow 100% oxygen, total body cooling, cooled 0.9% saline IV at 90 mL/kg/hr, sodium bicarbonate for acidosis, corticosteroids for inflammation.
Causative: Dantrolene 2 mg/kg PO BID or 3 mg/kg IV to reverse the underlying abnormal calcium release in muscle.
Supportive: Discontinue suspect drugs/stimuli, intensive monitoring, fluid and electrolyte balance maintenance.

Emphysematous Organ Infection Abdominal distension; gas accumulation within organs (e.g., emphysematous gallbladder or urinary bladder).
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive management of abdominal distension and pain.
Causative: Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg SC, IV, or PO SID to treat bacterial infection.
Supportive: Fluid therapy, electrolyte balance, and monitoring for sepsis or organ failure.

Chronic Inflammatory Hepatic Disease A persistent inflammatory liver condition that can impair hepatic function and cause gastrointestinal and systemic signs.
Symptoms: Vomiting, icterus (jaundice), hematemesis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antiemetics for vomiting, gastroprotectants for hematemesis.
Causative: Dexamethasone 0.12 mg/kg IM, SC, or PO SID for 3–5 days to reduce hepatic inflammation.
Supportive: Nutritional support, hepatoprotectants, monitoring of liver function and hydration.

Diffuse Hepatic Neoplasia A malignant infiltration of the liver characterized by diffuse tumor growth, commonly associated with hepatic dysfunction.
Symptoms: Icterus (jaundice).
Treatment Symptomatic: Management of jaundice and associated discomfort.
Causative: Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO once daily; adjunctive vincristine sulfate chemotherapy.
Supportive: Liver support (e.g., SAMe, ursodeoxycholic acid), fluid and electrolyte balance, palliative care if advanced.

Pulmonary Fibrosarcoma A malignant tumor of fibrous connective tissue in the lungs, often leading to progressive respiratory impairment.
Symptoms: Dyspnea.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy and bronchodilators for respiratory distress.
Causative: Cisplatin 60 mg/m² IV every 3–4 weeks; doxorubicin injection as chemotherapy.
Supportive: Analgesics, nutritional support, and palliative care in advanced disease.

Meningitis An inflammatory disease of the meninges often caused by bacterial infection, leading to severe neurological deficits.
Symptoms: Blindness.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics for pain, anti-inflammatories to reduce neurological symptoms.
Causative: Ceftriaxone 30 mg/kg IV or IM BID for 10 days to eliminate bacterial infection.
Supportive: Fluid therapy, monitoring of CNS signs, nutritional support, physical therapy if residual deficits occur.

Brachycephalic Airway Syndrome An upper airway obstructive condition seen in brachycephalic breeds due to anatomical abnormalities such as elongated soft palate and stenotic nares.
Symptoms: Snoring, noisy breathing, exercise intolerance, possible respiratory distress.
Treatment Symptomatic: Weight management, minimizing heat/exercise stress, oxygen support during crises.
Causative: Surgical correction of elongated soft palate, stenotic nares, or everted laryngeal saccules.
Supportive: Fluticasone 300 µg/kg/dog BID to reduce airway inflammation, monitoring during anesthesia.

Ovarian Neoplasia A tumor of the ovary causing reproductive and behavioral abnormalities in female dogs.
Symptoms: Female infertility, absent estrus cycles, aggression, mounting behavior, prolonged estrus, vaginal discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Management of behavioral changes and abnormal discharges.
Causative: Surgical ovariohysterectomy as primary treatment; Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO once daily as adjunctive therapy.
Supportive: Hormonal balance support, fluid therapy, nutritional care.

Otic Neoplasia A tumor arising in the ear canal or middle ear, which can cause hearing loss and neurological signs.
Symptoms: Deafness, possible head shaking, ear discharge, balance issues if advanced.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics for pain, antibiotics if secondary infection is present.
Causative: Surgical excision if feasible; Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO once daily may be considered.
Supportive: Anti-inflammatories, ear cleaning, supportive nursing care.

Obstipation A severe form of constipation leading to painful, chronic retention of feces and abdominal enlargement.
Symptoms: Acute abdominal pain, abdominal distension, fecal retention.
Treatment Symptomatic: Enemas, stool softeners, manual evacuation under anesthesia if necessary.
Causative: Identify and address underlying causes (neurological, mechanical obstruction, metabolic disease).
Supportive: Atropine sulfate IV for motility support, hydration therapy, high-fiber diet, laxatives for long-term management.

Bony Neoplasia A tumor affecting bony structures that may lead to secondary complications depending on location.
Symptoms: Deafness (if localized near auditory bones); possible swelling or lameness in other sites.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics for pain, management of secondary complications.
Causative: Surgical excision if feasible; Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO once daily.
Supportive: Nutritional support, anti-inflammatories, monitoring for recurrence or metastasis.

Respiratory Distress During Anesthesia A complication during anesthesia requiring immediate airway support and stimulation of breathing.
Symptoms: Apnea or inadequate respiratory effort under anesthesia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen supplementation, airway clearance, ventilation support.
Causative: Doxapram 7 mg/kg IV as a respiratory stimulant.
Supportive: Continuous monitoring, adjustment of anesthetic depth, fluid and thermal support.

Canine Vaginal or Vulvar Neoplasia Tumors affecting the vagina or vulva, varying from benign leiomyoma to malignant carcinoma or sarcoma.
Symptoms: Serosanguinous or hemorrhagic vaginal/vulvar discharge, dysuria, pollakiuria, vulvar mass/protrusion, tenesmus, excessive licking.
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs (e.g., piroxicam) for palliation in transitional/urothelial carcinoma.
Causative: Complete surgical excision with ovariohysterectomy; vulvovaginectomy and perineal urethrostomy if malignant/unresectable; adjunctive vincristine or mitoxantrone chemotherapy; radiotherapy if needed.
Supportive: Post-operative care, fluid therapy, pain management, monitoring for recurrence. Prognosis good for benign tumors, guarded for malignant forms.

Oral Neoplasia (Granuloma) Tumors or granulomatous growths affecting the oral cavity, often invasive and locally destructive.
Symptoms: Ptyalism, oral masses, drooling, halitosis, facial swelling or asymmetry.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics for oral pain, antibiotics if secondary infection occurs.
Causative: Surgery (wide excision, mandibulectomy, or maxillectomy); radiation therapy if incomplete excision or non-resectable tumor; systemic therapy with Toceranib phosphate (Palladia) 2.75 mg/kg PO EOD; metronomic chemotherapy protocols in palliative cases.
Supportive: Nutritional support (soft diets, feeding tubes if needed), anti-inflammatories, oral hygiene care.

Oral Neoplasia (Melanoma, Fibrosarcoma) Malignant oral tumors commonly seen in dogs, often aggressive and locally invasive.
Symptoms: Halitosis, oral masses, drooling, difficulty eating, bleeding, facial swelling.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics for pain control, soft or blended diet, local wound care for ulcerated masses.
Causative: Carboplatin injection; Cisplatin 60 mg/m² IV every 3–4 weeks; Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO SID; surgical excision when feasible.
Supportive: Radiation therapy for non-resectable tumors, palliative care, nutritional support, and monitoring for metastasis.

Inflammatory Airway Disease (Canine/Feline) A chronic inflammatory condition of the airways causing cough and respiratory compromise in dogs and cats.
Symptoms: Chronic cough, exercise intolerance, wheezing, dyspnea, crackles, respiratory distress exacerbated by stress or environment.
Treatment Symptomatic: Albuterol inhaler 2–4 puffs q5 min as needed for acute episodes; Terbutaline 0.1 mg/kg SC q4 h or 0.03 mg/kg PO q8 h; aminophylline 10 mg/kg IV slow in dogs or theophylline PO (dogs: 5–7 mg/kg q8 h; cats: 3 mg/kg q12 h).
Causative: Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO q12 h for 1 week then taper in dogs; prednisolone 1 mg/kg/day × 2 weeks in cats; inhaled fluticasone via MDI (40–110 µg BID small dogs/cats; 220 µg BID large dogs).
Supportive: Cyproheptadine 2 mg PO q12–24 h in cats if bronchoconstriction persists; environmental control (dust, smoke, allergens), weight management, oxygen therapy during crises.

Heparin Overdose An anticoagulant overdose leading to excessive bleeding and coagulation impairment.
Symptoms: Excessive bleeding, prolonged clotting times, hematoma formation at injection sites.
Treatment Symptomatic: Local pressure for bleeding control, transfusion support if severe anemia develops.
Causative: Protamine sulfate 1 mg IV slowly per 100 units of heparin given in past 2 hours (max 50 mg in dogs/cats).
Supportive: Monitor for hypotension and allergic reactions, supportive fluid therapy, oxygen if shock occurs.

Electrolyte Disturbances (e.g., Hypernatremia) Disruption of normal electrolyte balance, commonly affecting sodium levels and neurological function.
Symptoms: Seizures, coma, muscle tremors, disorientation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Clonazepam 0.1–0.5 mg/kg PO BID or IV for acute seizures; Gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO TID for adjunctive control.
Causative: Gradual correction of sodium imbalance using IV fluids (0.45% NaCl or D5W), guided by sodium correction formulas.
Supportive: Frequent electrolyte monitoring, supportive care to avoid rapid shifts that can cause cerebral edema.

Primary Brain Tumor Intracranial neoplasia affecting neurological function depending on location and growth rate.
Symptoms: Seizures, behavioral changes, circling, proprioceptive deficits, vision loss.
Treatment Symptomatic: Phenobarbital 2.5–3 mg/kg PO BID for seizure control; Gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO TID as adjunct.
Causative: Surgical resection or radiation therapy if accessible and feasible.
Supportive: Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID to reduce peritumoral edema; palliative care for non-resectable cases.

Uterine Disease (e.g., Proestrus, Tumor, Subinvolution) Pathologic or physiologic uterine disorders affecting reproductive function and systemic health.
Symptoms: Hematuria, vulvar discharge, abdominal distension, anemia in chronic cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care for anemia, fluid therapy, antibiotics if infection suspected.
Causative: Dinoprost tromethamine (PGF2α) 0.1–0.25 mg/kg SC q24h until uterine evacuation is complete; ovariohysterectomy in non-breeding animals or for tumors.
Supportive: Monitor for vomiting, panting, restlessness after PGF2α; nutritional support and post-surgical care as needed.

Thiamine deficiency(Vitamin B1 deficiency) A nutritional or metabolic deficiency impairing carbohydrate metabolism and neurological function.
Symptoms: Vestibular ataxia, seizures, dilated pupils, ventroflexion, coma, opisthotonus.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anticonvulsants (e.g., diazepam) for seizure control if needed.
Causative: Dogs: Thiamine HCl 25–50 mg IM or SC SID × 3–5 days; Cats: 10–20 mg IM or SC SID; then oral thiamine 5–10 mg/kg PO SID until recovery.
Supportive: Vitamin B-complex supplementation, correction of underlying dietary imbalance, supportive care for debilitated animals.

Contact Dermatitis A hypersensitivity reaction caused by contact with allergens or irritants.
Symptoms: Pruritus, erythema, papules on ventrum, face, pinnae, and feet; often in younger dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Remove suspected allergen; bathe with mild hypoallergenic shampoo; topical antibiotics (e.g., Fusidic acid BID) if secondary infection is present.
Causative: Eliminate allergen exposure to prevent recurrence.
Supportive: Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days; Pentoxifylline 15–20 mg/kg PO TID to reduce inflammation.

Canine Idiopathic Polymyositis An immune-mediated inflammatory myopathy of skeletal muscles.
Symptoms: Weakness, anorexia, weight loss, stiff gait, muscle pain, pyrexia, dysphagia, dysphonia, regurgitation; affects thoracic/pelvic limb, neck, and esophageal muscles in adult dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Physical therapy and pain management (e.g., Tramadol 3–5 mg/kg PO TID).
Causative: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 2–4 weeks, then taper over 3 months; if inadequate response, add Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only) or Cyclophosphamide 2 mg/kg PO SID (4 days on, 3 days off) for up to 3 weeks.
Supportive: Nutritional support, hydration, and monitoring for aspiration pneumonia.

Suspected Abdominal Neoplasia Often due to intra-abdominal tumors leading to fluid accumulation or organ enlargement.
Symptoms: Abdominal distension, lethargy, possible pain or organ dysfunction.
Treatment Symptomatic: Palliative care to relieve discomfort; Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID may improve appetite and reduce inflammation.
Causative: Surgical excision if operable; Chemotherapy tailored to tumor type (e.g., Doxorubicin 30 mg/m² IV q3wk for lymphoma).
Supportive: Diagnostic imaging (ultrasound/CT), biopsy, staging, nutritional and fluid support; monitor for anemia or secondary complications.

Anticoagulant Toxicity / Bleeding Disorder A coagulopathy usually caused by rodenticide ingestion or clotting factor deficiency.
Symptoms: Hematuria, bleeding gums, hemoptysis, cough, petechiation, ecchymosis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Fresh frozen plasma or whole blood transfusion in severe bleeding; Desmopressin 0.3 µg/kg SC in von Willebrand disease.
Causative: Vitamin K1 2.5–5 mg/kg PO BID for 3–4 weeks; initial SC injection (2.5 mg/kg) if active bleeding.
Supportive: Monitor PT and aPTT every 48–72 hours; restrict activity to reduce trauma risk.

CNS Inflammation (Cats) Neurological inflammation often secondary to infectious or immune-mediated disease.
Symptoms: Aggression, behavior change, ataxia, seizures, altered mentation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anticonvulsants if seizures present; nursing care to prevent injury.
Causative: Prednisolone 2 mg/kg PO SID initially, taper over 3–4 weeks; Clindamycin 12.5 mg/kg PO BID if toxoplasmosis suspected.
Supportive: Hydration, nutritional support, monitoring of neurologic status; avoid NSAIDs like ketoprofen due to risk of adverse CNS effects.

Intracranial Neoplasia (Cats) A primary or secondary brain tumor in cats causing progressive neurological dysfunction.
Symptoms: Aggression, seizures, vision loss, circling, altered mentation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anticonvulsants such as Levetiracetam 20 mg/kg PO TID for seizure control.
Causative: Surgical resection or radiation therapy if feasible and accessible.
Supportive: Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID for peritumoral edema; nursing care and monitoring. Levamisole is not indicated.

Intracranial Neoplasia (Dogs) Brain tumor in dogs leading to neurological and behavioral changes.
Symptoms: Aggression, personality change, head pressing, seizures.
Treatment Symptomatic: Levetiracetam 20 mg/kg PO TID for seizure management.
Causative: Surgery, stereotactic radiation, or chemotherapy depending on tumor type and location.
Supportive: Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID to reduce edema; provide pain management and supportive care. Levamisole is inappropriate.

Uterine Rupture A life-threatening condition usually secondary to dystocia, trauma, or neoplasia.
Symptoms: Abdominal pain, collapse, signs of sepsis, vaginal discharge (bloody or purulent).
Treatment Symptomatic: Opioid analgesia for pain management.
Causative: Emergency ovariohysterectomy.
Supportive: IV broad-spectrum antibiotics (Ampicillin-sulbactam 30 mg/kg IV TID + Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg IV SID); fluid resuscitation. Avoid NSAIDs such as Meloxicam due to GI perfusion compromise.

Mastitis Bacterial infection and inflammation of the mammary glands, often in lactating females.
Symptoms: Abdominal pain near mammary glands, swelling, fever, lethargy, discolored milk.
Treatment Symptomatic: Warm compresses and manual drainage of affected glands.
Causative: Antibiotics such as Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID or Clindamycin 11 mg/kg PO BID for 10–14 days.
Supportive: NSAIDs (Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID) for inflammation and pain; hydration and nutritional support.

Renomegaly (Neoplasia/Infiltrative) Enlarged kidney(s) due to neoplasia or infiltrative disease.
Symptoms: Abdominal distension, organomegaly.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain control, fluid balance monitoring.
Causative: CHOP-based chemotherapy (Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin, Vincristine, Prednisone) if lymphoma; surgical resection if unilateral and operable.
Supportive: Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID; ultrasound-guided biopsy for diagnosis; general supportive care as needed.

Spleen Rupture or Neoplasm A life-threatening emergency due to splenic rupture or tumor (commonly hemangiosarcoma).
Symptoms: Abdominal pain, collapse, pale mucous membranes.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids, blood transfusion if necessary.
Causative: Emergency splenectomy; chemotherapy post-op if malignant (e.g., Doxorubicin 30 mg/m² IV q3wk × 5).
Supportive: Histopathology to confirm diagnosis; stabilization and monitoring. Meloxicam is not appropriate.

Vaginal Neoplasia or Uterine Neoplasia Reproductive tract tumors affecting vagina or uterus in female dogs.
Symptoms: Vulvar discharge, swelling, dysuria.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antibiotics if concurrent infection present.
Causative: Surgical excision (vulvovaginectomy or ovariohysterectomy); radiation or chemotherapy if malignancy confirmed.
Supportive: Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID to reduce inflammation. Levamisole is not indicated.

Urethral Neoplasia Tumors of the urethra causing partial or complete urinary obstruction.
Symptoms: Oliguria, stranguria, urinary obstruction.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stenting or urethrostomy to relieve obstruction.
Causative: NSAIDs (e.g., Piroxicam), chemotherapy (e.g., Mitoxantrone), or radiation therapy for tumor control.
Supportive: Analgesia, urinary catheterization if needed. Levamisole is not effective.

Lymphomatoid GranulomatosisA rare lymphoproliferative disorder affecting lungs, lymph nodes, and other organs.
Symptoms:: Enlarged lymph nodes, lethargy, respiratory signs such as cough and dyspnea.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics for nausea and antibiotics for secondary infections.
Causative:: CHOP protocol (Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin, Vincristine, Prednisone); Epirubicin 30 mg/m² IV q3wk if Doxorubicin not tolerated.
Supportive:: Monitoring of CBC/biochemistry, nutritional support, hydration therapy, and close clinical monitoring.

OrchitisInflammation of the testes, usually caused by bacterial infection or trauma.
Symptoms:: Male infertility, scrotal swelling, pain, and possible systemic illness in severe cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: NSAIDs such as Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID for pain and inflammation.
Causative:: Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO SID or Clindamycin 11 mg/kg PO BID for bacterial infection.
Supportive:: Castration in chronic or recurrent cases; scrotal support and cold compresses. Dexamethasone is not standard therapy for infectious orchitis.

EpididymitisInflammation of the epididymis, often bacterial in origin and sometimes associated with Brucella infection.
Symptoms:: Male infertility due to inflammatory ejaculate, testicular pain, scrotal swelling.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: NSAIDs such as Carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID for inflammation.
Causative:: Enrofloxacin 10–20 mg/kg PO SID for 10–14 days; Doxycycline 5–10 mg/kg PO BID if Brucella is suspected.
Supportive:: Castration for chronic or non-responsive cases; rest and local cold therapy.

Hepatic Congestion (Secondary to Right-Sided Heart Failure)Venous congestion of the liver resulting from impaired right-sided cardiac function, leading to increased hepatic pressure and fluid accumulation.
Symptoms:: Abdominal distension, hepatomegaly, ascites, jugular venous distension.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Furosemide 2–4 mg/kg IV/PO BID–TID for ascites relief.
Causative:: Pimobendan 0.3 mg/kg PO BID; Enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO SID; Hydralazine 0.5–1 mg/kg PO BID (cautious use) for afterload reduction.
Supportive:: Spironolactone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID–BID; sodium-restricted diet; monitoring renal values and electrolytes; rest. Dopamine is not routinely used.

Acquired Nasopharyngeal Stenosis (Cats)A narrowing of the nasopharyngeal passage, usually secondary to chronic inflammation or trauma.
Symptoms:: Sneezing, nasal discharge, salivation, expiratory cheek puffing, dyspnea worsened by eating or swallowing, usually in cats aged 1–5 years.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen supplementation in cases of severe dyspnea.
Causative:: Endoscopic balloon dilation (may require multiple sessions); surgical correction via ventral rhinotomy/excision if dilation fails.
Supportive:: Postoperative corticosteroids (Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID) to minimize scarring; antibiotics (Clavamox 12.5 mg/kg PO BID) to prevent infection; tracheostomy as a last resort in severe cases.

Shock Circulatory failure leading to tissue hypoperfusion and hypoxia.
Symptoms: Sinus tachycardia, pale mucous membranes, prolonged CRT, weak pulse, hypotension, cold extremities, altered mentation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen supplementation, analgesia if painful, close monitoring of blood pressure and perfusion.
Causative: Correct underlying cause (hemorrhage → surgical control/transfusion, sepsis → antibiotics, anaphylaxis → epinephrine and antihistamines).
Supportive: Aggressive IV crystalloid therapy (e.g., lactated Ringer’s); Dopamine infusion at 6 μg/kg/min IV for hypotension; Desmopressin 0.01–0.04 Units/min IV in vasopressor-resistant shock or concurrent CDI; blood products if hypovolemic/hemorrhagic.

Cardiogenic ShockA life-threatening state of inadequate tissue perfusion due to severe cardiac dysfunction.
Symptoms:: Convulsions, coma, weak pulses, prolonged CRT, hypothermia, hypotension.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oxygen therapy and correction of electrolyte imbalances.
Causative:: Dobutamine 5–10 μg/kg/min IV CRI to improve myocardial contractility.
Supportive:: Furosemide 2 mg/kg IV if pulmonary edema present; careful fluid therapy; intensive monitoring. Desmopressin is not used in cardiogenic shock.

Urethral ProlapseA protrusion of urethral mucosa through the external urethral orifice, most common in young, intact male dogs.
Symptoms:: Red or purple mass protruding from penis tip, preputial bleeding, excessive licking, stranguria.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: NSAIDs such as Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID for inflammation and pain.
Causative:: Surgical correction is definitive; reduction and purse-string suture in mild cases; urethropexy for recurrent cases.
Supportive:: Castration recommended to reduce sexual drive; Clavamox 12.5 mg/kg PO BID post-op; scrotal care and rest.

Endometritis (Not Endometriosis)An inflammatory condition of the endometrium often associated with infertility and abnormal estrous cycles in breeding animals.
Symptoms:: Serosanguinous vaginal discharge, infertility, prolonged estrus, occasional mild systemic signs.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Lavage with sterile saline in chronic or persistent cases to help clear exudate.
Causative:: Cloprostenol 1–2 μg/kg IM once daily for 3–5 days to induce uterine clearance; targeted antibiotic therapy based on culture and sensitivity (e.g., Amoxicillin–Clavulanate 12.5 mg/kg PO BID for 10–14 days).
Supportive:: Good breeding management, rest period before next mating attempt, nutritional support. Estradiol is contraindicated due to severe side effects.

Zinc Phosphide PoisoningA severe and often fatal toxicosis in animals following ingestion of rodenticides containing zinc phosphide, leading to phosphine gas release in the stomach.
Symptoms:: Acute anorexia, vomiting, abdominal pain, dyspnea, tremors, seizures, collapse within hours; characteristic garlic or rotten fish odor in breath.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Control seizures with Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg IV or Midazolam 0.2 mg/kg IV; provide oxygen supplementation for respiratory distress.
Causative:: Emergency gastric lavage if recent ingestion, followed by activated charcoal 1–4 g/kg PO; administer antacids such as Aluminum hydroxide 50–100 mg/kg PO to reduce gastric acidity and phosphine release.
Supportive:: IV fluids for stabilization, strict handling precautions (to avoid gas exposure to staff), continuous monitoring of cardiac and respiratory status. Gabapentin is not used in acute poisoning.

Lip Fold PyodermaA superficial bacterial skin infection occurring in lip folds, commonly seen in breeds with excessive skin folds such as Spaniels and Bulldogs.
Symptoms:: Halitosis, foul odor around lips, moist dermatitis, erythema, and discomfort in lip folds.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Daily cleaning of affected areas with antiseptic solutions (e.g., chlorhexidine).
Causative:: Systemic antibiotics such as Clindamycin 5 mg/kg PO BID or Cephalexin 22 mg/kg PO BID for 7–14 days; Rifampin 10 mg/kg PO SID for resistant infections.
Supportive:: Surgical lip fold resection in recurrent or severe cases to eliminate chronic infection sites.

Idiopathic HypercholesterolemiaA metabolic disorder characterized by persistently elevated cholesterol levels without identifiable secondary causes.
Symptoms:: Hypertension, obesity, seizures in severe cases, presence of xanthomas.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Amlodipine 0.1 mg/kg PO SID for hypertension; Enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO SID or BID as adjunct antihypertensive and renal support.
Causative:: Dietary management with low-fat prescription diet (e.g., Hill’s r/d) and Omega-3 fatty acids; lipid-lowering drugs such as Gemfibrozil 10–15 mg/kg PO BID or Atorvastatin 1 mg/kg PO SID; Colestyramine 0.5–2 g PO BID to reduce cholesterol absorption.
Supportive:: Weight management, regular monitoring of blood lipids and blood pressure, lifestyle modifications. Diazoxide is not indicated for cholesterol disorders.

Pica or Depraved AppetiteA behavioral or pathological condition characterized by ingestion of non-food materials, often secondary to systemic or psychological disorders.
Symptoms:: Decreased appetite, ingestion of inappropriate items, weight loss, and behavioral changes.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Appetite stimulants such as Mirtazapine 1.88 mg PO SID (cats), 2–3 mg PO SID (dogs), or Cyproheptadine 1.1 mg/kg PO BID; Oxazepam 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO BID (rarely used).
Causative:: Address underlying conditions (e.g., anemia, gastrointestinal disease, nutritional deficiencies).
Supportive:: Behavioral therapy and environmental enrichment to reduce stress and inappropriate ingestion.

Vomiting due to Hypercalcemia / HyperlipidemiaA clinical manifestation of metabolic imbalance, most commonly secondary to endocrine or neoplastic disease.
Symptoms:: Vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, polyuria/polydipsia, and bradycardia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: IV fluids (0.9% NaCl) to promote calciuresis; Furosemide 2 mg/kg IV BID to enhance calcium excretion.
Causative:: Treat underlying disease (e.g., lymphoma, pancreatitis, hyperparathyroidism). Corticosteroids: Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO BID to reduce calcium levels. Bisphosphonates such as Pamidronate 1–2 mg/kg IV over 2 hours or Clodronate 5–14 mg/kg IV slowly over 2 hours.
Supportive:: Monitor serum calcium, electrolyte balance, and renal function. Clodronate PO is not recommended due to poor absorption.

Delayed OvulationA reproductive disorder in females resulting in reduced fertility due to altered or postponed ovulatory timing.
Symptoms:: Infertility, shortened or irregular estrus cycles, and failure to conceive despite mating.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Ovulation induction with hCG (Chorionic gonadotropin) 22 IU/kg IM once during early estrus.
Causative:: GnRH agonist therapy with Deslorelin implant 4.7 mg SC for controlled ovulation timing.
Supportive:: Monitor ovulation via progesterone levels or vaginal cytology; repeat breeding post-ovulation to improve conception rates.

AnoestrusA reproductive disorder in females where estrus cycles are absent or irregular, leading to infertility.
Symptoms:: Female infertility, absence of estrus cycling, shortened or missing heat periods.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Monitor vaginal cytology and progesterone levels to assess ovarian activity.
Causative:: eCG (PMSG) 50–100 IU SC daily for 5 days or hCG 20 IU/kg SC once daily for up to 5 days to stimulate follicular growth and ovulation.
Supportive:: Consider Deslorelin implant in breeding programs for improved cycle control.

Biliary Obstruction due to PancreatitisA complication of pancreatic inflammation leading to impaired bile flow and secondary jaundice.
Symptoms:: Icterus (jaundice), vomiting, abdominal pain, anorexia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Antiemetics (Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID), analgesia (Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV/IM q8h), and nutritional support.
Causative:: Address underlying pancreatitis and remove obstruction if persistent.
Supportive:: IV fluids for stabilization. Surgical decompression or biliary stenting if obstruction does not resolve. Folic acid is not indicated.

Hyporexia (Decreased Appetite)A nonspecific clinical sign associated with systemic, metabolic, or behavioral disorders.
Symptoms:: Decreased appetite, weight loss, lethargy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Appetite stimulants such as Cyproheptadine 1.1 mg/kg PO BID (cats), Mirtazapine 1.88 mg PO SID (transdermal in cats), or Oxazepam 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO BID (rare).
Causative:: Identify and manage underlying disease (renal, hepatic, GI, metabolic, or neoplastic causes).
Supportive:: Nutritional support (assisted feeding or feeding tubes) to prevent cachexia.

Skin Fragility Syndrome (Cats)A rare dermatological condition where the skin becomes excessively fragile, often secondary to endocrine disease.
Symptoms:: Skin tears, erosions, and ulcers of skin and mucosa occurring with minimal trauma.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Minimize handling to prevent further injury. Use topical Fusidic acid BID for 5–7 days if localized infection is present.
Causative:: Treat underlying conditions such as hyperadrenocorticism or diabetes mellitus.
Supportive:: Systemic antibiotics for deeper or secondary infections, wound management, and supportive care.

Urinary CystolithiasisThe formation of urinary bladder stones (uroliths) leading to irritation and obstruction.
Symptoms:: Hematuria, stranguria, dysuria, pollakiuria, painful urination, passage of uroliths.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Analgesia and supportive management during acute episodes of obstruction.
Causative:: Surgical removal of stones (cystotomy). Dietary dissolution for struvite stones (Hill’s S/D). Allopurinol 10–15 mg/kg PO BID (dogs with urate stones; avoid in cats). Thiola (2-MPG) 20 mg/kg PO BID for cystine stones.
Supportive:: Treat underlying conditions (e.g., Cushing’s, liver shunt). Urinary alkalinization with potassium citrate.

Bile Duct NeoplasiaA malignant or benign tumor of the bile duct system causing biliary obstruction and liver dysfunction.
Symptoms:: Icterus, vomiting, weight loss, abdominal pain.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Liver support with SAMe and silymarin. Symptomatic management of vomiting and discomfort.
Causative:: Surgical excision if operable. Chemotherapy may be considered for malignant cases.
Supportive:: Ursodeoxycholic acid 10–15 mg/kg PO SID to promote bile flow and protect hepatocytes.

Granulomatous UrethritisA chronic inflammatory condition of the urethra leading to obstruction and urinary dysfunction.
Symptoms: Hematuria, urinary incontinence, painful urination.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Ephedrine 0.5–1.0 mg/kg PO q8h for sphincter mechanism incompetence. Analgesics for painful urination.
Causative: Immunosuppressive therapy with Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO SID (tapered). Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO SID if concurrent infection is documented.
Supportive: Oestriol 1 mg PO SID for hormone-responsive incontinence in spayed females; bladder management and hydration support.

Lung Lobe TorsionA life-threatening condition where a lung lobe twists on its bronchovascular pedicle, obstructing airflow and blood supply.
Symptoms: Dyspnea, anorexia, depression, acute respiratory collapse, tachypnea, cough ± hemoptysis, lethargy, hypotension.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Oxygen therapy, thoracocentesis to relieve pleural effusion, IV fluids, analgesics (e.g., Methadone 0.2 mg/kg IV).
Causative: Surgical lobectomy (definitive treatment).
Supportive: Pre-op stabilization, post-op chest tube drainage, antibiotics if secondary infection is present, careful monitoring of respiratory function.

Histiocytic Sarcoma / Malignant HistiocytosisAn aggressive neoplasm arising from interstitial dendritic cells or macrophages.
Symptoms: More common in male dogs, rare in cats. Anorexia, depression, lethargy, fever, cachexia, enlarged lymph nodes, hepatosplenomegaly.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Palliative care for systemic illness (analgesia, nutritional support, anti-inflammatories).
Causative: Localized disease: surgical excision ± radiation therapy. Disseminated disease: chemotherapy (CCNU/Lomustine 70–90 mg/m² PO q3–4 weeks or Doxorubicin-based protocols).
Supportive: Supportive care to maintain quality of life; monitoring organ function during chemotherapy; early palliative measures due to poor prognosis in systemic disease.

Multiple Myeloma / Waldenström’s Macroglobulinemia A malignant proliferation of plasma cells producing abnormal immunoglobulins.
Symptoms: Anorexia, lethargy, bone pain, vision loss, PU/PD, hyperviscosity, hypercalcemia, petechiation, cardiac arrhythmias, pleural/abdominal effusion.
Treatment Symptomatic: Furosemide for fluid overload; therapeutic phlebotomy or plasmapheresis for hyperviscosity; analgesics for bone pain.
Causative: Melphalan 0.1 mg/kg PO SID × 10 days, then 0.05 mg/kg SID long-term; Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID × 10–14 days then taper. Alternatives: Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin, Vincristine (CHOP-like protocol).
Supportive: Hydration, nutritional support, monitoring of calcium/electrolytes, careful cardiac monitoring. Mithramycin rarely used due to toxicity.

Lymphangitis Inflammation of lymphatic vessels, often bacterial, sometimes immune-mediated.
Symptoms: Fever, depression, limb pain, warm/swollen skin, lameness, draining tracts, lymph node enlargement.
Treatment Symptomatic: Warm compresses, NSAIDs for pain and inflammation.
Causative: Systemic antibiotics based on culture (e.g., Cephalexin 22 mg/kg PO BID). If immune-mediated: tapering Prednisone or other immunosuppressants.
Supportive: Wound care, surgical drainage if abscess or foreign body is present, limb rest and supportive bandaging if needed.

Lymphangiosarcoma A malignant neoplasm of lymphatic endothelium with locally invasive and metastatic behavior.
Symptoms: Poorly circumscribed subcutaneous mass, pitting edema of limb or ventral abdomen, fluctuant swelling.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain management, supportive wound/edema care.
Causative: Surgical excision if localized; consider Doxorubicin-based chemotherapy in aggressive cases. Radiation therapy has unclear efficacy.
Supportive: Palliative care for recurrence/metastasis, nutritional support, fluid balance management. Prognosis is guarded to poor.

Splenomegaly Enlargement of the spleen due to neoplastic, infectious, immune-mediated, or traumatic causes.
Symptoms: Abdominal distention, lethargy, weight loss, vomiting, PU/PD, pale gums, collapse, shock.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilization with IV fluids, blood transfusion if anemia, analgesics.
Causative: Chemotherapy for lymphoma (e.g., CHOP protocol); Prednisone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO tapered for immune-mediated disease; targeted antibiotics (e.g., doxycycline for tick-borne infections).
Supportive: Splenectomy for trauma, rupture, or refractory splenic masses; ongoing monitoring of hematology and abdominal imaging.

Vitamin D Poisoning (Cholecalciferol Poisoning) Toxic ingestion leading to hypercalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, and renal failure.
Symptoms: Anorexia, CNS depression, vomiting, muscle weakness, constipation, bloody diarrhea, PU/PD, dehydration, possible acute renal failure.
Treatment Symptomatic: Loperamide (Decotil) 0.2 mg/kg PO BID for diarrhea; Bisacodyl (Dalax) 0.12 mg/kg/dog PRN for constipation; Docusate sodium 50–100 mg PO BID or rectal enema for fecal softening.
Causative: Decontamination (induce emesis if recent ingestion); activated charcoal to reduce absorption; consider cholestyramine as adjunct binder.
Supportive: IV fluids for diuresis, monitor calcium, phosphorus, renal values; furosemide and prednisone may aid calcium excretion in severe cases; nutritional and electrolyte support.

Paradoxical Drug Reaction (Cat) Adverse excitatory response to sedatives, most often benzodiazepines.
Symptoms: Aggression, agitation, restlessness, vocalization, hyperesthesia (sensitivity to touch).
Treatment Symptomatic: Provide a calm environment, reduce external stimuli, monitor closely.
Causative: Discontinue the offending medication immediately; avoid future use of the same class of sedative.
Supportive: Administer Clomipramine (TCA, dose individualized) to reduce anxiety/aggression; consider alternative anxiolytics; behavioral modification in persistent cases.

Iron Salt Poisoning Toxicity caused by ingestion of excessive iron salts leading to gastrointestinal, metabolic, and systemic complications.
Symptoms: Profuse salivation, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea (often bloody), lethargy, metabolic acidosis, and liver failure in advanced stages.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids for shock/dehydration, antiemetics (e.g., maropitant), gastroprotectants.
Causative: Gastric lavage if recent ingestion; Deferoxamine chelation therapy 15 mg/kg IV/IM every 2 hours for 2 doses, then 10 mg/kg IV/IM every 8 hours.
Supportive: Monitor serum iron, liver enzymes, and renal function; provide oxygen if hypoxic; nutritional and nursing support.

Use of Respiratory Stimulant Administration of pharmacological agents to stimulate respiratory drive in cases of drug-induced or disease-related respiratory depression.
Symptoms: Shallow or irregular breathing, apnea episodes, cyanosis, and bradycardia due to anesthesia or opioid overdose.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen supplementation and close monitoring of respiratory rate and SpO₂.
Causative: Naloxone for opioid toxicity or reversal agents for anesthetic drugs.
Supportive: Doxapram hydrochloride injection (or oral drops) to stimulate medullary respiratory centers; use cautiously in seizure-prone or cardiac-compromised animals.

Cerebral Hypoxia (Dog) Reduction of oxygen delivery to the brain leading to neurological and behavioral disturbances.
Symptoms: Aggression, disorientation, seizures, altered consciousness, and collapse episodes.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy, seizure control with diazepam or levetiracetam, careful IV fluid support to maintain cerebral perfusion.
Causative: Correct the underlying cause such as heart failure, airway obstruction, or respiratory distress.
Supportive: Clomipramine for behavioral stabilization, Buspirone 1.5 mg/kg PO BID to reduce anxiety/aggression, intensive nursing care to prevent injury during collapse.

Flatulence Excessive accumulation of intestinal gas leading to abdominal discomfort and distension.
Symptoms: Acute abdominal pain, bloating, restlessness, visible abdominal distension, and frequent expulsion of gas.
Treatment Symptomatic: Magnesium hydroxide + Aluminum salts 0.02–0.1 mg/kg PO once to three times daily to neutralize gastric acid and reduce discomfort.
Causative: Dietary modification and management of underlying gastrointestinal disorders.
Supportive: Simethicone for gas dispersion, probiotics for gut health, and monitoring for signs of secondary gastric dilatation.

Adhesions of Peritoneum Fibrous bands forming between peritoneal surfaces, usually secondary to surgery, inflammation, or infection.
Symptoms: Acute or chronic abdominal pain, vomiting, anorexia, abdominal guarding, and signs of intestinal obstruction in severe cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pregabalin 4 mg/kg PO BID for chronic and neuropathic pain management.
Causative: Surgical adhesiolysis if obstruction or persistent complications occur.
Supportive: Nutritional support, fluid therapy, and monitoring for recurrent obstruction or sepsis.

Mesenteric Neoplasia and Inflammation Pathological changes in mesenteric tissue due to tumor growth or inflammatory disease, potentially impairing GI motility and blood supply.
Symptoms: Regurgitation, abdominal distension, gastric dilatation, volvulus, intestinal gas accumulation, acute abdominal pain, and reduced appetite.
Treatment Symptomatic: Ketoprofen 1 mg/kg PO SID for pain and inflammation relief.
Causative: Dexamethasone 0.12 mg/kg IM/SC/PO SID for 3–5 days to reduce inflammation; surgical excision if neoplastic.
Supportive: Close monitoring for gastric torsion, IV fluid therapy, oxygen supplementation, and nutritional support.

Cognitive Dysfunction (Cat)Age-related neurodegenerative disorder affecting cognition and behavior in geriatric cats.
Symptoms: Aggressive behavior, anxiety, confusion, restlessness, altered sleep-wake cycles, vocalization, and disorientation.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Lorazepam 0.02–0.1 mg/kg PO one to three times daily, alprazolam 0.01–0.1 mg/kg PO q8h, or amitriptyline 1.5 mg/kg PO BID for anxiety and behavioral issues.
Causative: Clomipramine or buspirone 1.5 mg/kg PO BID to improve cognitive function and reduce anxiety.
Supportive: Environmental enrichment, predictable routines, and interactive activities to slow disease progression and improve quality of life.

Brain Neoplasia (Cat)Intracranial tumor affecting neurological function and behavior in cats.
Symptoms: Aggressive behavior, seizures, circling, ataxia, cranial nerve deficits, vision loss, and altered behavior.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Clomipramine, buspirone 1.5 mg/kg PO BID to manage behavioral changes; anticonvulsants as indicated for seizure control.
Causative: Levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO SID; surgical excision, radiotherapy, or corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone) depending on tumor type and location.
Supportive: Diagnostic imaging (MRI/CT) for confirmation and treatment planning.

Pituitary Dysfunction (Dog)Endocrine disorder caused by insufficient pituitary hormone production, leading to systemic developmental abnormalities.
Symptoms: Stunted growth, delayed development, lack of secondary sexual characteristics, and reduced activity.
TreatmentSymptomatic: None specific beyond hormone replacement.
Causative: Clonidine 3–10 μg/kg IV as a single dose (diagnostic agent in dogs only); hormonal therapy such as thyroid or growth hormone supplementation depending on deficiency profile.
Supportive: Nutritional support and regular endocrine monitoring.

Soft Tissue SarcomaMalignant tumor of connective tissues with potential for local invasion and metastasis.
Symptoms: Enlarged lymph nodes, firm or movable mass, weight loss, localized swelling, or discomfort.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Analgesics and anti-inflammatories for pain control.
Causative: Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID with cyclophosphamide 10 mg/m² PO SID; chemotherapeutics such as cisplatin 60 mg/m² IV q3–4 weeks, dacarbazine, or dactinomycin as indicated by tumor type and stage.
Supportive: Surgery and radiation therapy for local control.

Hepatic Distomatosis (Cats)Severe liver disease caused by fluke infestation leading to progressive hepatic failure.
Symptoms: Progressive weakness, exhaustion, coma, severe ascites, jaundice, and eventual death.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Supportive care such as fluid therapy and nutritional support.
Causative: No specific effective treatment available.
Supportive: Palliative management to maintain comfort; prognosis is poor in advanced cases.

Intestinal HelminthiasisA common parasitic infection in dogs and cats, especially in young animals and in overcrowded or unsanitary tropical environments. Parasitic infestation of the intestines by nematodes, cestodes, or trematodes, leading to gastrointestinal and systemic signs.
Symptoms: Acute diarrhea, weight loss, rough coat, abdominal discomfort, and anemia in severe infestations.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Supportive care with nutritional supplementation and management of anemia.
Causative: Levamisole 2.5 mg/kg PO every other day; repeat after 2 weeks. Mebendazole PO as per dosing schedule.
Supportive: Fecal monitoring and strict sanitation to prevent reinfection.

NSAID Overdose (Diclofenac/Aspirin)Toxicity due to excessive nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug ingestion, leading to coagulopathy and gastrointestinal bleeding.
Symptoms: Excessive bleeding, melena, epistaxis, hematemesis, and prolonged clotting time.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Supportive therapy including IV fluids and blood products if needed.
Causative: Administer Vitamin K (PO or IM) to reverse anticoagulant effects.
Supportive: Monitor PT/INR and bleeding time regularly until normalization.

Lymphocytic-Plasmacytic ColitisChronic inflammatory bowel disease characterized by lymphocyte and plasma cell infiltration of the colonic mucosa.
Symptoms: Chronic diarrhea, mucus in stool, tenesmus, weight loss, and intermittent vomiting.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Butylscopolamine (Spanil) 0.1 ml/kg IV or IM BID, or 0.5 mg/kg PO or IM BID for relief of colonic spasms.
Causative: Immunosuppressive agents such as prednisolone and antimicrobial therapy with metronidazole if bacterial overgrowth is suspected.
Supportive: Dietary modification with hypoallergenic or highly digestible food.

Severe DehydrationCritical fluid deficit in the body caused by fluid loss from vomiting, diarrhea, heatstroke, or reduced intake.
Symptoms: Constipation, dry mucous membranes, sunken eyes, poor skin turgor, and lethargy.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Rehydration therapy with IV fluids as the preferred route.
Causative: Address underlying cause of dehydration such as infection or heat stress.
Supportive: For constipation relief, bisacodyl (Dalax) 0.12 mg/kg/dog PO as needed, or docusate sodium 50–100 mg PO BID, or 10 ml of 5% solution mixed in 100 ml saline per rectum.

Splenic HemangiosarcomaMalignant vascular tumor of the spleen, often presenting late and with high metastatic potential.
Symptoms: Sneezing, nasal discharge (secondary signs), lethargy, pale gums, abdominal mass, sudden collapse, and hemoperitoneum.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Stabilization with IV fluids and blood transfusions if needed.
Causative: Cisplatin 60 mg/m² IV every 3–4 weeks; Epirubicin 3 mg/m² slow IV every 3 weeks after premedication with chlorphenamine or dexamethasone to reduce hypersensitivity reactions.
Supportive: Splenectomy as the primary surgical intervention. Prognosis is guarded to poor.

Brain Stem LesionDamage or mass effect in the brainstem affecting autonomic, motor, and sensory pathways.
Symptoms: Sinus bradycardia, altered consciousness, loss of coordination, respiratory irregularities, and cranial nerve deficits.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Atropine sulfate injection for severe bradycardia.
Causative: Glycopyrrolate 0.011 mg/kg IV, IM, or SC to increase heart rate and reduce vagal tone.
Supportive: Ephedrine 1 mg/kg PO BID for sympathomimetic support.

Severe Hypertension (Cat)Marked elevation of systemic blood pressure leading to acute target organ damage.
Symptoms: Anuria, oliguria, acute blindness, retinal detachment, seizures, disorientation, and kidney damage.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Monitor BP and renal parameters closely.
Causative: Amlodipine 0.05–0.1 mg/kg PO BID as first-line antihypertensive; Enalapril 2 mg/kg PO BID for RAAS blockade.
Supportive: Diltiazem 0.05–0.25 mg/kg slow IV or 0.5–2 mg/kg PO q8h; Atenolol 1 mg/kg PO BID; Diazoxide 5–20 mg/kg PO q8h titrated; Hydralazine HCl 1 mg/kg PO BID.

Extramedullary PlasmacytomaAn uncommon plasma cell tumor that arises outside the bone marrow.
Symptoms:: Solitary pink, hairless, ulcerated masses in the oral cavity, skin of head and ears. Gastrointestinal involvement may cause vomiting, melena, hematochezia. Bone lesions may result in pain and pathologic fractures.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management and supportive care for GI bleeding (fluids, gastroprotectants).
Causative:: Excisional surgery for localized tumors. Radiation or cryotherapy for non-resectable lesions. Chemotherapy if systemic involvement is confirmed.
Supportive:: Nutritional support, analgesics, and monitoring for metastasis or recurrence.
Prognosis:: Guarded due to risk of metastasis; prognosis improves with complete surgical excision.

Thymic HypoplasiaA congenital disorder characterized by underdevelopment of the thymus leading to immunodeficiency in young animals.
Symptoms:: Vomiting, diarrhea, stunted growth, recurrent infections (skin, respiratory, gastrointestinal), poor immune response.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Broad-spectrum antibiotics, antifungals, or antivirals as needed to manage infections.
Causative:: No definitive cure; immunomodulating drugs, cytokine therapy, and bone marrow transplantation may be attempted in severe cases.
Supportive:: Intensive nursing care, nutritional support, and monitoring for secondary complications.
Prognosis:: Guarded to poor, depending on severity of immune deficiency.

Thymic Cysts / Mediastinal CystsBenign cystic lesions in the thymus or mediastinum, often incidental findings.
Symptoms:: Usually asymptomatic; in some cases regurgitation, coughing, or respiratory compromise if large or compressive.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Palliative management of respiratory distress if present.
Causative:: Ultrasound-guided aspiration or surgical excision for symptomatic or large cysts.
Supportive:: Regular monitoring for recurrence or progression.
Prognosis:: Excellent with complete excision; favorable in asymptomatic animals.

Thymic HemorrhageA rare but life-threatening condition often seen in young dogs, characterized by acute bleeding into the thoracic cavity.
Symptoms:: Acute blood loss signs—pallor, tachycardia, weakness, tachypnea, dyspnea; may present as hemothorax.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Evacuation of thoracic blood if necessary, oxygen supplementation, and respiratory support.
Causative:: No definitive cure—management is aimed at stabilizing hemorrhage and underlying cause if identified (e.g., trauma, coagulopathy).
Supportive:: IV fluids for shock, whole blood transfusion if anemia is significant, close monitoring of hematocrit and respiratory status.
Prognosis:: Guarded; outcome depends on severity and underlying etiology.

ThymomaA neoplasm of thymic epithelial cells, often affecting older animals, sometimes associated with paraneoplastic syndromes.
Symptoms:: Regurgitation, cough, dyspnea, muffled heart/lung sounds; precaval syndrome (edema of head, neck, and forelimbs) in advanced cases.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Palliative care for dyspnea and edema; management of paraneoplastic syndromes (e.g., myasthenia gravis).
Causative:: Surgical excision for non-invasive tumors; radiation therapy for inoperable or invasive tumors; chemotherapy (Prednisone, Cyclophosphamide, Vincristine, Doxorubicin) for epithelial components.
Supportive:: Ongoing monitoring of tumor progression and secondary complications.
Prognosis:: Variable; better with complete excision, guarded with invasive or metastatic disease.

Feline Thymoma-Associated Exfoliative Dermatitis Symptoms: Erythema, exfoliation on the head, neck, and pinnae, progressing to generalized dermatitis. Alopecia, hyperpigmentation, and seborrheic debris, particularly around claw beds and interdigital areas.
Treatment Causative: Surgical removal of the thymic tumor.
Supportive: Prognosis is poor; most cases euthanized within 4–5 months due to progressive skin lesions.

Thymic LymphomaA malignant lymphoid tumor often affecting cats and young dogs, frequently associated with hypercalcemia.
Symptoms:: Precaval syndrome (edema of head, neck, and forelimbs), palpable thoracic mass (may extend beyond thoracic inlet in cats), polyuria, polydipsia, weakness, anorexia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Treatment of hypercalcemia with IV fluids (0.9% NaCl), furosemide (2–4 mg/kg IV q8–12h), and bisphosphonates (e.g., pamidronate 1–2 mg/kg IV over 2–4h).
Causative:: Combination chemotherapy protocols (CHOP: Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin, Vincristine, Prednisone) are standard; radiation therapy for rapid local control.
Supportive:: Nutritional support, analgesics, and fluid therapy to maintain hydration and renal function.
Prognosis:: Guarded to poor; remission possible but relapses common.

Acute Kidney Injury (Dehydration, Hypovolemia)A sudden decline in renal function due to reduced renal perfusion from severe dehydration or hypovolemia.
Symptoms: Anuria, oliguria, prolonged capillary refill time, pale mucous membranes, weak pulses.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Aggressive IV fluid therapy with isotonic crystalloids (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s or 0.9% NaCl) to restore circulating volume.
Causative: Address underlying dehydration or hypovolemic shock; discontinue nephrotoxic drugs if present.
Supportive: Furosemide 2–4 mg/kg IV q8–12h to induce diuresis (only if volume status is restored but oliguria persists); Dopamine 2–5 μg/kg/min IV CRI may be attempted. Nutritional support and monitoring of electrolytes, urine output, and acid–base balance.
Prognosis: Variable; depends on severity of renal damage and response to treatment. Note: Clonazepam is not appropriate for treating anuria/oliguria.

Parasitic EncephalomyelitisNeurologic disease caused by aberrant migration of parasites such as Cuterebra, Baylisascaris, or Toxocara into the CNS.
Symptoms: Blindness, circling, seizures, behavioral changes, ataxia, paresis, head tilt, hypermetric gait, intention tremors, absent menace response.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Corticosteroids (e.g., Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg/day PO) to reduce inflammation and cerebral edema.
Causative: Anthelmintics (e.g., Albendazole 25 mg/kg PO q12h × 10–14 days) may be attempted in early infection, though CNS penetration is variable.
Supportive: Seizure management, IV fluids, nutritional care, and nursing support.
Prognosis: Guarded to poor; irreversible neurologic damage is common.

Pneumocystis Pneumonia Symptoms: Chronic cough, dyspnea, exercise intolerance,

Fibrotic Myopathy Symptoms: Mechanical lameness with shortened stride, internal paw rotation, shoulder pain, and lateral limb circumduction with paw flipping. Often presents 2–3 weeks post-trauma. Common in German Shepherds and other large, active breeds; due to fibrotic contracture of muscles like the gracilis or infraspinatus.
Treatment Symptomatic: Medical therapy is generally ineffective.
Causative: Surgical myotomy (gracilis) or tenotomy (infraspinatus) to release fibrotic bands.
Supportive: Post-operative physical rehabilitation is essential. Prognosis depends on chronicity and extent of fibrotic change.

Feline Acne Symptoms: Erythematous, crusted papules and pustules on chin and lips; swollen chin with draining tracts or abscesses. Linked to follicular hyperkeratosis and secondary infection; common in adolescent to adult cats.
Treatment Symptomatic: Clip fur and clean area with 2.5–3% benzoyl peroxide shampoo daily.
Causative: Apply topical antibiotics (e.g., mupirocin 2%, metronidazole 0.75%). Severe cases may require doxycycline 5 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive: Vitamin A supplementation (8,000 IU/day PO) or isotretinoin (2 mg/kg/day PO) under veterinary supervision. Long-term topical care may be needed.

Canine Acne Symptoms: Papules and pustules on the chin and lips, especially in young, short-haired dogs; may progress to ulceration or draining fistulas. Suppurative folliculitis is the hallmark lesion.
Treatment Symptomatic: Regular cleansing with benzoyl peroxide or chlorhexidine (2–4%) solution.
Causative: Oral antibiotics: Cephalexin or Cefadroxil 22 mg/kg PO BID, Clindamycin 10 mg/kg PO BID, or Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO SID for 10–21 days.
Supportive: Short course of corticosteroids (e.g., Prednisolone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days) for inflammation. Monitor and adjust therapy based on clinical response.

ImpetigoA superficial bacterial skin infection, most often affecting puppies and young dogs, characterized by pustules and crusts in sparsely haired regions.
Symptoms: Numerous small, non-follicular papules and pustules with non-pruritic yellowish crusts, commonly located in the inguinal and axillary areas.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Clean affected areas with antiseptic shampoo containing benzoyl peroxide or chlorhexidine SID for 10 days.
Causative: Topical antimicrobials such as neomycin, benzoyl peroxide, or chlorhexidine ointments applied SID to BID for 10 days.
Supportive: Systemic antibiotics are rarely necessary unless lesions are widespread or complicated by secondary infection.

Thrombosis Symptoms: Clinical signs vary with the thrombus location:
- Arterial thrombi: Pain, reduced pulse pressure, cool limbs, decreased motor and sensory function, hyporeflexia, cyanotic nail beds.
- Pulmonary artery: Hypoxemia, dyspnea.
- Cranial vena cava: Edema of the head and forelimbs.
- Portal vein: Vomiting, diarrhea, portal hypertension, peritoneal effusion.
Thrombosis can be secondary to numerous acquired disorders, including vasculitis, endocarditis, chemical irritant injections (e.g., hyperosmolar solutions), heart failure, immune-mediated hemolytic anemia, feline cardiomyopathy, neoplasia (especially hemangiosarcoma), trauma, surgery, endocrine disorders (hypothyroidism, Cushing’s), and infections (e.g., parvovirus, sepsis).
Treatment Symptomatic: Treat underlying cause; supportive care to maintain perfusion.
Causative:
Cats: Heparin infusion 125 U/kg IV loading dose, then 30 U/kg/hr IV continuous; Dalteparin 125 U/kg SC BID; Clopidogrel 18 mg PO SID; Aspirin 8 mg/kg PO every 48 hrs.
Dogs: Dalteparin 150 U/kg SC BID; Aspirin 0.5 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive: Fresh frozen plasma transfusions at 10 mL/kg IV BID may help restore antithrombin. Avoid heparin in actively bleeding patients.

Venous Obstruction or Compression Symptoms: Peripheral edema, particularly of the limbs or face, due to impaired venous return. May result from thrombosis, external mass compression (e.g., neoplasia, abscess), or prolonged limb immobility.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care to reduce edema and maintain perfusion.
Causative: Identify and address underlying etiology (e.g., remove or treat compressive mass, manage thrombosis).
Supportive: Clopidogrel 1–2 mg/kg PO SID as antiplatelet therapy to improve blood flow and reduce thrombotic risk.

Oral PapillomatosisA benign, contagious viral condition of dogs caused by canine oral papillomavirus, primarily affecting young animals. Lesions are typically self-limiting and confer lifelong immunity after recovery.
Symptoms:: Dysphagia, excessive drooling (ptyalism), halitosis, decreased appetite, and facial rubbing. Lesions may present as gray, pedunculated masses or white nodules, usually regressing within 6–12 weeks; regression is marked by darkening and shriveling.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: No intervention if asymptomatic or mildly affected.
Causative:: No antiviral treatment available; most cases resolve spontaneously with lifelong immunity.
Supportive:: In severe or persistent cases, surgical excision, cryotherapy, or electrosurgery may be performed.
Note: Autologous wart vaccines have inconsistent efficacy and are not routinely recommended.

EpulisA benign gingival tumor originating from the periodontal ligament, with subtypes including ossifying, fibromatous, and acanthomatous epulis. Common in dogs—accounting for about 20% of oral tumors—but rare in cats.
Symptoms:: May be detected incidentally or present with anorexia, ptyalism, oral bleeding, dysphagia, and halitosis. More frequent in older dogs, though possible at any age.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Surgical excision for obstructive or bleeding lesions.
Causative:: Because recurrence is common with incomplete excision, partial maxillectomy or mandibulectomy may be indicated.
Supportive:: Radiation therapy can be effective; selected cases may benefit from chemotherapy such as doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, or intralesional bleomycin.

Oral FibrosarcomaA malignant tumor originating from fibrocytes, commonly affecting the oral cavity of dogs and cats. It is the second most common oral tumor in cats (~20%) and the third most common in dogs (10–20%), with no known viral cause.
Symptoms:: Dysphagia, ptyalism, anorexia, halitosis, exaggerated chewing motions, difficulty eating, and facial pawing. Tumors are often large (over 4 cm) and locally invasive.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management and nutritional support.
Causative:: Surgical resection with wide margins, including partial or total maxillectomy or mandibulectomy as indicated.
Supportive:: Postoperative megavoltage radiation therapy (more effective than orthovoltage). Chemotherapy options for aggressive or recurrent cases include doxorubicin, dacarbazine, cisplatin, or carboplatin.

Vitamin K–Dependent Multifactor Coagulopathy Symptoms: Spontaneous or post-traumatic bleeding including body cavity hemorrhage, unexplained hematomas, and prolonged bleeding following surgery. A rare congenital disorder due to defective vitamin K–dependent gamma-glutamyl carboxylase, impairing clotting factor activation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor for bleeding episodes and provide hemostatic support as needed.
Causative: Lifelong supplementation with Vitamin K1 (phytonadione) 5 mg PO SID.
Supportive: Avoid invasive procedures; genetic counseling and regular coagulation profile monitoring are advised.

Vitamin K Antagonism (Rodenticide Toxicity) Symptoms: Bleeding 3–7 days post-ingestion; signs include pleural hemorrhage, dyspnea, pale mucous membranes, hypovolemic shock, tachycardia, lethargy, weakness. Common in dogs due to ingestion of anticoagulant rodenticides; cats are less frequently affected.
Treatment Symptomatic: Thoracocentesis or pericardiocentesis for pleural/pericardial effusion. Stabilize shock and anemia.
Causative: Induce emesis (if recent ingestion) and administer activated charcoal with sorbitol (3 g/kg PO). Begin Vitamin K1 therapy at 2 mg/kg PO BID for 3–4 weeks.
Supportive: Monitor PT/INR. Recheck coagulation 48 hours after stopping Vitamin K1.

Hepatic-Associated Coagulopathy Symptoms: Mild to severe bleeding from mucous membranes or internal cavities. Caused by decreased hepatic synthesis of clotting factors due to acute or chronic liver disease (e.g., hepatitis, cirrhosis, neoplasia, or portosystemic shunts).
Treatment Symptomatic: Treat hemorrhage with fresh frozen plasma and volume expansion.
Causative: Manage the underlying liver disease (e.g., supportive hepatoprotective therapy, dietary changes, surgical correction for shunts).
Supportive: Vitamin K1 supplementation, coagulation factor replacement, monitor coagulation profiles.

Hypovitaminosis K (Vitamin K Deficiency) Symptoms: Prolonged prothrombin time, bruising, spontaneous bleeding. Common causes include obstructive cholestasis, intestinal malabsorption, long-term antibiotic use, or exocrine pancreatic insufficiency.
Treatment Symptomatic: Plasma transfusion for severe hemorrhage.
Causative: Treat underlying condition and provide Vitamin K1: 3 mg/kg SC or PO as needed.
Supportive: Vitamin K1 before invasive procedures or liver biopsy; monitor coagulation status during recovery.

Consumptive Coagulopathy (Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation) Symptoms: Clinical signs range from none to severe, including cavitary bleeding, petechiae, ecchymoses, and signs of shock. Triggered by systemic illness (e.g., trauma, heat stroke, sepsis, neoplasia, pancreatitis) leading to widespread coagulation factor consumption and microthrombi formation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilize circulation with fluids, treat anemia and bleeding with fresh frozen plasma and platelet concentrates.
Causative: Address underlying disease causing the coagulopathy.
Supportive: Low-dose Heparin (75 U/kg SC TID) may help in early or controlled cases; prognosis depends on timely and effective management of the triggering condition.

Shoulder and Elbow Luxation Symptoms: In medial shoulder luxation, the limb is carried in flexion with outward foot rotation; in lateral luxation, foot is internally rotated. Elbow luxation presents as abducted limb with external rotation and slight flexion. Commonly results from trauma; early intervention critical to prevent joint instability or chronic dysfunction.
Treatment Symptomatic: Closed reduction under general anesthesia.
Causative: Immobilization using a Velpeau sling (shoulder) or spica splint (elbow) for 2–3 weeks.
Supportive: Strict cage rest post-reduction. Chronic or recurrent luxations may require surgical stabilization techniques such as biceps tendon transposition, capsular imbrication, excision arthroplasty, or arthrodesis.

Feline Chronic Cholangiohepatitis Symptoms: Vomiting, diarrhea, jaundice, weight loss, lethargy, and reduced or fluctuating appetite persisting for more than 3 weeks. Often seen in middle-aged cats; frequently part of “triaditis” involving liver, pancreas, and intestines.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antiemetics, hepatic-support diets, and fluids for dehydration or anorexia.
Causative: Prednisolone 2 mg/kg PO SID for 4–6 weeks, tapered gradually; Ursodeoxycholic acid 10–15 mg/kg PO SID; Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO SID for steroid-refractory cases.
Supportive: Vitamin E 25 IU/kg PO BID, S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) 20 mg/kg PO SID on an empty stomach. Antibiotics like amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–20 mg/kg PO BID if bacterial infection is suspected. Prognosis varies; long-term therapy and monitoring may be needed.

Pneumocystis Pneumonia Symptoms: Chronic cough, progressive dyspnea, tachypnea, exercise intolerance, and weight loss. Often affects young immunocompromised dogs, especially Miniature Dachshunds and Cavalier King Charles Spaniels. Caused by Pneumocystis carinii, a fungal-like organism that primarily affects the lungs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Bromhexine (mucolytic) 8 mg/dog IM BID or 2 mg/kg PO BID to facilitate airway clearance.
Causative: Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) 15–30 mg/kg PO q12h for 21–28 days is the treatment of choice.
Supportive: Monitor for potential adverse effects such as bone marrow suppression during TMP-SMX therapy. Oxygen supplementation and supportive care may be necessary in severe cases.

Avascular Necrosis of the Femoral Head Symptoms: Gradually progressive pelvic limb lameness in a young, small-breed dog, often without a history of trauma. Lameness typically worsens over 6–8 weeks, leading to difficulty rising or standing. Associated with ischemic necrosis of the femoral head due to compromised blood supply; also known as Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain management with NSAIDs such as Carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID.
Causative: Femoral Head and Neck Ostectomy (FHO) is standard in small dogs and cats; Total Hip Replacement (THR) is an option in larger or working dogs.
Supportive: Begin surgery with the more affected limb; delay contralateral surgery by 4–6 weeks if bilateral. Postoperative physiotherapy is critical for full functional recovery.

Myositis Ossificans Symptoms: Firm, painful intramuscular nodules typically located in the neck, back, or limbs; may cause stiffness, lameness, and swelling, especially after exercise. Most common in large-breed, middle-aged dogs; may occur after trauma or repetitive muscle strain leading to heterotopic bone formation within muscle tissue.
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs (Carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID, Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID, Deracoxib 2 mg/kg PO SID) to control pain and inflammation. Avoid NSAIDs in coagulopathic animals.
Causative: Surgical excision if nodules impair mobility or cause significant pain.
Supportive: Rest, controlled exercise, and physiotherapy post-surgery. Prognosis varies; recurrence is possible, especially in diffuse or generalized forms.

Shoulder and Elbow Luxation Symptoms: In medial shoulder luxation, limb is carried flexed with outward foot rotation. In lateral shoulder luxation, foot is internally rotated. Elbow luxation shows abducted limb, external rotation, and slight flexion. Typically trauma-induced; prompt diagnosis essential to avoid chronic instability.
Treatment Symptomatic: Closed reduction under anesthesia.
Causative: Immobilization: Velpeau sling (shoulder) or spica splint (elbow) for 2–3 weeks.
Supportive: Cage rest post-reduction. Chronic cases may require surgical stabilization (e.g., biceps tendon transposition, arthrodesis).

Fibrinogen Deficiency (Afibrinogenemia / Hypofibrinogenemia / Dysfibrinogenemia) Symptoms: Life-threatening mucocutaneous hemorrhage including epistaxis and hemarthrosis. Severe bleeding after trauma or surgery. Signs of liver failure and anemia may occur. Fibrinogen (Factor I) is a liver-derived clotting protein critical for platelet aggregation and fibrin formation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Expand circulatory volume and correct anemia.
Causative: Administer fibrinogen, preferably via cryoprecipitate to reduce volume overload and transfusion risks.
Supportive: Monitor coagulation parameters and restrict activity post-treatment.

Prothrombin (Factor II) Deficiency Symptoms: Mucocutaneous and cavitary hemorrhage; spontaneous or trauma-induced bleeding. Factor II (Prothrombin) is a vitamin K–dependent liver protein required to convert fibrinogen to fibrin.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilize with fluid therapy and correct anemia.
Causative: Transfuse plasma products containing Factor II.
Supportive: Avoid surgery without plasma support; recommend genetic testing to prevent breeding.

Factor XI Deficiency (Hemophilia C) Symptoms: Epistaxis, hematuria, menorrhagia, bruising, hematomas, prolonged bleeding post-trauma or surgery, anemia, and hypovolemia. Factor XI is activated by thrombin or Factor XIIa to propagate the coagulation cascade.
Treatment Symptomatic: Volume expansion and correction of anemia.
Causative: Administer plasma products rich in Factor XI.
Supportive: Genetic testing is recommended; avoid breeding and surgical procedures without preparation.

Factor X Deficiency Symptoms: Spontaneous or trauma-induced hemorrhage; mild to severe bleeding tendency. Factor X is a vitamin K–dependent protein vital for thrombin generation; congenital deficiency is reported in domestic shorthair cats.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilize with fluid therapy and address anemia.
Causative: Transfuse with Factor X-containing plasma.
Supportive: Monitor coagulation status and prevent injury. Prognosis varies based on severity.

Factor VII Deficiency Symptoms: Prolonged hemorrhage after trauma, surgery, castration, or parturition. Factor VII is a vitamin K–dependent liver protein; congenital deficiency is most common in Beagles and several purebred dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Volume support and anemia correction.
Causative: Administer Factor VII via plasma transfusion.
Supportive: Genetic screening advised; avoid breeding; plan procedures carefully to prevent excessive bleeding.

Cranial Cruciate Ligament Rupture Symptoms: Mild to moderate lameness, pain during stifle manipulation or extension, bony crepitus, and muscle atrophy. Bilateral ruptures may lead to difficulty rising or ambulation. Common in active or overweight dogs; degenerative changes in the ligament are often involved.
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs, weight management, and rest for mild cases or small breeds.
Causative: Surgical repair (TPLO, TTA, or extracapsular stabilization) recommended in large or active dogs.
Supportive: Physical rehabilitation and long-term joint supplements (e.g., glucosamine, omega-3s). Prognosis is excellent with proper surgery and follow-up.

Primary Seborrhea in Cats Symptoms: Greasy, malodorous coat with matting, excessive scaling, alopecia, and waxy debris in ear canals and skin folds. May have a genetic basis or occur secondary to metabolic or immune-mediated disease.
Treatment Symptomatic: Medicated shampoos (sulfur, benzoyl peroxide) and regular grooming.
Causative: No definitive cure; manage underlying systemic conditions if present.
Supportive: Hair clipping may reduce matting. Euthanasia may be considered in severe, intractable cases due to poor quality of life.

Primary Seborrhea in Dogs Symptoms: Greasy coat with foul odor, dry scale, pruritus (especially on ventral neck, face, perineum, and feet), otitis externa, brittle nails, and lesions near eyes and mouth. Often breed-related, especially in Cocker Spaniels and Basset Hounds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antiseborrheic shampoos (sulfur-salicylic acid, selenium sulfide) every 2–3 days.
Causative: Retinoids (Acitretin or Etretinate 1 mg/kg PO SID) and Vitamin A (400 IU/kg/day PO).
Supportive: Omega-3 supplementation (EPA 180 mg/5 kg SID), prednisone for severe pruritus. Lifelong management required.

Sebaceous Adenitis Symptoms: Patchy alopecia, greasy scale, coat dullness or color change, swelling of eyelids and muzzle, pyoderma, and systemic signs like fever or malaise. More common in Standard Poodles, Akitas, and Vizslas; immune-mediated destruction of sebaceous glands.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical keratolytic shampoos and 50% propylene glycol rinses daily.
Causative: Cyclosporine (5 mg/kg PO BID), Tetracycline (20 mg/kg PO BID) with Niacinamide (500 mg in large dogs).
Supportive: Retinoids (Acitretin 1–2 mg/kg PO SID). Requires lifelong management with variable response.

Pinnal Seborrhea Symptoms: Crusting, scaling, and alopecia of the ear margins with ulceration or fissuring; lesions may bleed and worsen in dry or cold weather. Common in Dachshunds, Dobermans, and Whippets; may involve vascular compromise.
Treatment Symptomatic: Daily washes with sulfur, salicylic acid, or benzoyl peroxide shampoos.
Causative: Pentoxifylline (10 mg/kg PO BID) to improve microcirculation.
Supportive: Topical corticosteroids or retinoids. Surgical excision in severe, non-responsive cases.

Radial and Ulnar Growth Deformities Symptoms: Unilateral forelimb lameness, visible limb deformity, abnormal angulation or length, pain on joint palpation, and possible crepitus. Often due to premature closure of the distal ulnar growth plate, especially in young large-breed dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain control with NSAIDs and activity restriction.
Causative: Surgical correction with partial ulnar ostectomy or radial osteotomy in advanced cases.
Supportive: Early intervention prevents joint incongruity and improves long-term limb function.

Osteosarcoma (Bone Tumors) Symptoms: Progressive lameness (mild to severe), localized bone pain, palpable mass, pathologic fractures after minimal trauma, swelling, cachexia, and possible dyspnea (pulmonary metastasis). Spinal involvement may cause neurological deficits or paralysis. Most common primary bone tumor in large and giant breed dogs, often affecting the distal radius or proximal humerus.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain control with Tramadol 3 mg/kg PO BID and transdermal fentanyl patches (4 mg/kg for 4 days). Bisphosphonates may help reduce bone resorption.
Causative: Amputation of the affected limb or limb-sparing surgery in eligible patients.
Supportive: Adjunctive chemotherapy (e.g., carboplatin or doxorubicin) improves survival. Palliative radiation for non-surgical cases. Median survival with surgery + chemo is 10–12 months.

Hyperestrogenism (Female Dog) Symptoms: Symmetrical alopecia over flanks, neck, chest, and hindlimbs; enlarged nipples and vulva; gynecomastia; hyperpigmentation; seborrhea; and irregular estrous cycles. Vaginal discharge or endometritis may occur. Commonly caused by estrogen-producing ovarian tumors (e.g., granulosa cell tumors).
Treatment Symptomatic: Manage skin issues with medicated shampoos and omega-3 fatty acids.
Causative: Ovariohysterectomy (OVH) is curative if performed early.
Supportive: Monitor for recurrence or metastasis post-OVH. Perform histopathology on excised tissue. Prognosis depends on tumor type and stage at diagnosis.

Bone Cysts Symptoms: Localized bone pain, swelling, or lameness due to expansion or pathologic fracture. Some cases are incidental radiographic findings. Includes unicameral and aneurysmal bone cysts; usually occur in young, large-breed dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics as needed for pain relief.
Causative: Curettage and bone grafting for solitary cysts; complete surgical excision for aneurysmal cysts.
Supportive: Radiographic monitoring for recurrence or fracture. Prognosis depends on cyst type and surgical outcome.

Secondary Seborrhea Symptoms: Skin scaling, greasy or dry coat, malodor, inflammation, and possible secondary infections. May affect trunk, limbs, or ears. A manifestation of underlying disease such as endocrine disorders, allergies, infections, or parasites.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antiseborrheic shampoos (e.g., sulfur, salicylic acid, benzoyl peroxide) 2–3 times weekly.
Causative: Diagnose and manage underlying condition (e.g., hypothyroidism, pyoderma, atopy).
Supportive: Omega-3 fatty acids and skin barrier support. Long-term maintenance may be needed.

Vaccine-Associated Vasculitis Symptoms: Focal alopecia at the vaccination site, often complete and circumscribed; erythema; atrophic and hyperpigmented skin; scaling; non-pruritic lesions. Commonly associated with rabies vaccine, especially in small breeds like Poodles, Bichons, and Maltese.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pentoxifylline 12 mg/kg PO BID weekly to improve microcirculation.
Causative: Surgical excision of persistent lesions.
Supportive: Avoid vaccination at the same site in future; consider serologic titers or spacing vaccines longer. Prognosis is good with appropriate care.

Copper Toxicity Symptoms: Icterus, lethargy, vomiting, anorexia, coagulopathies, and hepatic encephalopathy in advanced stages. Common in genetically predisposed breeds such as Bedlington Terriers, where copper accumulates in hepatocytes, leading to oxidative damage and chronic liver failure.
Treatment Symptomatic: SAMe 20 mg/kg PO SID and Vitamin E 10 IU/kg PO SID for antioxidant liver support.
Causative: D-penicillamine 10 mg/kg PO BID (on empty stomach) to chelate copper; low-copper diet; zinc acetate 5–10 mg elemental zinc/kg PO BID to reduce intestinal copper absorption.
Supportive: Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID if inflammation is confirmed histologically. Monitor ALT, AST, bile acids, and perform hepatic copper quantification. Lifelong management often needed.

Otodectic Mange Symptoms: Bilateral or unilateral otitis externa with thick, dark ceruminous discharge; intense pruritus; alopecia; papular-crusting dermatitis on the ears, neck, face, and dorsolumbar region. Caused by Otodectes cynotis mites; highly contagious, especially among kittens, shelter animals, and those with close contact.
Treatment Symptomatic: Clean ears with ceruminolytics prior to applying topical agents.
Causative: Pyrethrin-based ear drops SID for 7 days (repeat after 7 days); Thiabendazole otic solution SID for 7 days; Ivermectin 0.01% otic 0.5 mL per ear (repeat after 2 weeks); Selamectin topical once, repeat in 30 days.
Supportive: Treat all in-contact animals and sanitize environment. Response typically observed within 2 weeks. Prognosis is excellent with proper treatment.

Feline Scabies(Notoedric Mange) Symptoms: Intense pruritus; alopecic, thick yellow-gray crusted lesions on ears, face, eyelids, and neck. In advanced cases, lichenification and peripheral lymphadenopathy may occur. Caused by Notoedres cati, a zoonotic mite that induces severe hypersensitivity and skin thickening. Highly contagious among cats.
Treatment Symptomatic: Relieve pruritus and skin inflammation with topical and systemic antiparasitic therapy.
Causative: Lime sulfur 3% dip weekly for 8 weeks (remove crusts prior); Ivermectin 0.3 mg/kg PO or SC every 2 weeks (3 doses); Selamectin topical every 4 weeks (2 doses).
Supportive: Environmental decontamination and treatment of all in-contact animals. Prognosis is excellent with appropriate therapy and compliance.

Pattern Baldness Symptoms: Symmetrical alopecia on ears, thighs, and tail; skin appears normal and non-inflammatory. Most common in male dogs. A non-inflammatory inherited condition involving follicular miniaturization; seen in breeds like Dachshunds, Chihuahuas, and Greyhounds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Melatonin 3 mg PO SID for dogs <10 kg, 6 mg PO SID for dogs >10 kg. Response may take several months.
Causative: No known curative therapy; hereditary basis.
Supportive: Cosmetic concern only; no systemic health impact. Not all dogs respond to melatonin.

Hypertrophic Osteopathy Symptoms: Symmetrical swelling of limbs (especially forelimbs), lameness, and lethargy. A paraneoplastic syndrome commonly linked to thoracic or abdominal masses (e.g., pulmonary tumors), due to increased vascular perfusion to the periosteum.
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs such as Carprofen 4.4 mg/kg PO BID, Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID, or Deracoxib 2 mg/kg PO SID for pain relief.
Causative: Surgical removal of the underlying thoracic or abdominal mass.
Supportive: Monitor clinical signs post-tumor excision. Prognosis depends on the nature of the primary disease.

Delayed Gastric Emptying Symptoms: Vomiting long after eating, projectile vomiting, abdominal distention, and weight loss. May present with polyuria and polydipsia in cases such as diabetes mellitus or renal disease. Results from retention of food in the stomach beyond 10–12 hours due to mechanical obstruction or functional motility disorders.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anti-emetics and fluid therapy for hydration and electrolyte balance.
Causative: Endoscopic or surgical removal of foreign bodies; surgical correction for mucosal hypertrophy, pythiosis, or tumors; insulin for diabetes mellitus; corticosteroids for inflammatory disease.
Supportive: Prokinetic agents (e.g., metoclopramide or cisapride). Prognosis depends on the underlying cause.

Atrophic Gastritis Symptoms: Intermittent vomiting, mild weight loss, anorexia, and depression. A rare condition possibly immune-mediated or the end-stage of idiopathic gastritis, characterized by gastric gland atrophy and decreased acid production.
Treatment Symptomatic: Easily digestible diet and mucosal protectants.
Causative: Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO SID for 3 weeks, tapered gradually over 3 months.
Supportive: Avoid acid suppressants in achlorhydria. Prognosis is guarded and response to therapy is variable.

Bilious Vomiting Syndrome Symptoms: Early morning bile-stained vomiting on an empty stomach. Physical exam is typically normal. An idiopathic condition involving duodenogastric reflux, triggering the vomiting reflex.
Treatment Symptomatic: Feed a small, late evening meal to buffer stomach acid and prevent overnight reflux.
Causative: None specific as the condition is idiopathic.
Supportive: Add prokinetics such as metoclopramide at bedtime if needed. Prognosis is excellent with dietary management.

Exertional Myopathy Symptoms: Muscle swelling, pain, tachypnea, myoglobinuria, hyperthermia, collapse, and potential renal failure. Seen in racing or working dogs due to lactic acidosis and ischemic damage to muscle tissue following strenuous exertion.
Treatment Symptomatic: Rest, active cooling, and pain relief.
Causative: IV fluids to correct hypovolemia and enhance myoglobin excretion, sodium bicarbonate for acidosis, diazepam 0.5 mg/kg IV if seizures occur.
Supportive: Monitor renal function closely. Prognosis is guarded in severe cases but improves with early aggressive treatment.

Feline Hypokalemic Polymyopathy Symptoms: Generalized weakness, ventroflexion of the neck, anorexia, muscle atrophy, stiff gait, and signs of hypertension. Caused by chronic potassium depletion, sometimes due to aldosterone-secreting tumors or inherited in Burmese cats.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oral potassium gluconate 5–8 mEq PO BID; IV potassium in severe cases (0.4 mEq/kg/hr in fluids).
Causative: Address underlying cause, such as adrenal tumor or renal loss.
Supportive: Dopamine CRI (0.5 mg/kg/min) may be used in life-threatening hypotension. Prognosis is excellent with early correction of hypokalemia.

Bacterial Myositis Symptoms: Focal or diffuse muscle pain, swelling, lameness, fever, lethargy, and rapid progression to sepsis in severe cases. Caused by direct inoculation (e.g., bite wounds) or hematogenous spread of pathogens like Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, or Pasteurella.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain control, warm compresses TID–QID.
Causative: Drain and lavage infected sites; broad-spectrum antibiotics pending sensitivity. Parenteral antibiotics for diffuse disease.
Supportive: Prognosis is good in focal infections with treatment; variable in septic cases.

Hypovitaminosis D Symptoms: Bone deformities, loose teeth ("rubber jaw"), hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, and elevated parathyroid hormone levels. Caused by dietary deficiency or lack of sunlight. Seen in animals fed imbalanced homemade diets or kept indoors long-term.
Treatment Symptomatic: Correct clinical symptoms such as limb deformities and dental issues.
Causative: Provide a balanced diet with proper Ca:P ratio and sufficient vitamin D; cautious vitamin D supplementation under monitoring.
Supportive: Radiographic and biochemical monitoring. Preventable through proper nutrition and husbandry.

Canine Chronic Hepatitis and Hepatic Cirrhosis Symptoms: Lethargy, anorexia, vomiting, weight loss, PU/PD, small bowel diarrhea, ascites, icterus, and hepatic encephalopathy in advanced cases. Common in middle-aged Dobermans, Labradors, and German Shepherds. A progressive inflammatory liver disease that culminates in cirrhosis, portal hypertension, and liver failure. Etiology may be idiopathic or immune-mediated.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care including antiemetics, fluid therapy, and nutritional management.
Causative: Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO SID for 2–3 weeks, then taper; Dexamethasone 0.3 mg/kg PO SID (preferred in dogs with ascites); Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 14 days, then QOD for 6 months; Metronidazole 12 mg/kg PO SID or divided BID; Colchicine 0.03 mg/kg PO SID (antifibrotic); Vitamin E 25 IU/kg PO BID.
Supportive: Monitor ALT, AST, bile acids, coagulation profile, and ultrasound. Lifelong management is often needed. Prognosis varies based on extent of fibrosis and treatment response.

Hepatic EncephalopathyA neurologic syndrome secondary to liver dysfunction and accumulation of neurotoxins (especially ammonia) in systemic circulation.
Symptoms:: Ataxia, lethargy, head pressing, seizures (particularly in cats), excessive salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, polyuria/polydipsia, circling, and altered mentation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Fluid therapy with correction of electrolytes and potassium imbalances; control of seizures if present.
Causative:: Lactulose 0.5–1.0 mL/kg PO TID–QID, or 5–15 mL/kg diluted enema BID to reduce ammonia absorption; dietary modification with low-protein, plant-based diet.
Supportive:: Antibiotics such as Neomycin 20 mg/kg PO BID or Metronidazole 7.5–10 mg/kg PO BID to reduce intestinal ammonia production; long-term management of underlying liver disease if possible.

Zinc-Responsive Dermatosis Symptoms: Anorexia, growth retardation, poor wound healing, reproductive disorders, lethargy, pyrexia, lymphadenopathy, cutaneous lesions, focal alopecia and erythema. Lesions around eyes, mouth, footpads, perianal area, and pressure points. Coat is dull, dry, and pruritic. Caused by zinc-deficient diets or poor absorption due to excessive calcium/phytates. Essential fatty acid deficiency may contribute. Lesions may vary within a litter.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical therapy for lesions and antipruritics as needed.
Causative: Zinc sulfate 10 mg/kg/day PO, zinc gluconate 5 mg/kg/day PO, or zinc methionine 1.7 mg/kg/day PO (lifelong); Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg/day PO to enhance absorption; IV zinc sulfate 10 mg/kg weekly for 4 weeks in severe cases.
Supportive: Correct dietary imbalances. Prognosis is good with adequate supplementation and dietary management.

Vitamin A-Responsive Dermatosis Symptoms: Alopecia, papules, crusting, scaling, pruritus, dry and dull coat, hair that epilates easily, and severe follicular plugging (fronds or casts). Ceruminous otitis may also be present. A rare disorder of cornification, likely hereditary, seen especially in Cocker Spaniels.
Treatment Symptomatic: Emollient and antiseborrheic shampoos used several times per week initially, then reduced to maintenance.
Causative: Vitamin A 10,000 IU PO SID with fatty meal for at least 6 weeks; often lifelong.
Supportive: Long-term skin care and monitoring of response. Prognosis is excellent with continued treatment.

Nasal Depigmentation (Dudley Nose) Symptoms: Light brown or pinkish discoloration of the nasal planum, often with ulceration, crusting, and pruritus. The normal cobblestone texture may be lost. Most common in certain breeds such as Golden Retrievers and Labrador Retrievers. Often seasonal and cosmetic in nature.
Treatment Symptomatic: None required unless secondary infection or ulceration occurs.
Causative: No curative therapy—condition is benign and cosmetic.
Supportive: Avoid sun exposure to reduce irritation. Use topical moisturizers or sunscreens if crusting occurs. Prognosis is excellent.

Narcolepsy-Cataplexy Symptoms: Sudden collapse or sleep triggered by excitement (e.g., play, feeding) in dogs younger than 6 months. May include muscle atonia (cataplexy), abrupt onset of REM sleep (narcolepsy), daytime drowsiness, or prolonged sleep periods. Episodes last seconds to 30 minutes and can be interrupted by stimulation. Seen in breeds like Dobermans, Labrador Retrievers, Dachshunds, and Poodles.
Treatment Symptomatic: Behavioral modification to reduce excitement triggers.
Causative: Imipramine 1 mg/kg PO BID, Desipramine 3 mg/kg PO BID, Amitriptyline 2 mg/kg PO BID, or Protriptyline 5 mg/kg PO SID for cataplexy.
Supportive: Methylphenidate 0.25 mg/kg PO BID, Dextroamphetamine 5 mg PO BID, or Selegiline 1 mg/kg PO SID to manage excessive sleepiness. Prognosis varies; condition typically requires lifelong management.

Cyclic Hematopoiesis (Cyclic Neutropenia) Symptoms: Weakness, stunted growth, poor wound healing, recurrent infections, thrombocytopenia-related hemorrhage, and neonatal death. Periodic drops in neutrophils, platelets, and RBCs occur every 10–14 days, especially in Gray Collies.
Treatment Symptomatic: Broad-spectrum antibiotics, fluid therapy, and oxygen as needed.
Causative: Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) 5 µg/kg SC BID; lithium carbonate 23 mg/kg/day PO to promote neutrophil production.
Supportive: Bone marrow transplantation may be curative but is rarely feasible. Prognosis is guarded due to recurrent infections and poor immune function.

Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome (Cats) Symptoms: Diluted coat color (smoke-blue), yellow-green eyes, photophobia, bleeding tendencies, and hemorrhage. Common in Persian cats due to giant azurophilic granules in leukocytes impairing immune function.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antibiotic therapy based on culture and sensitivity; general supportive care.
Causative: No specific treatment to correct granule defect.
Supportive: Prognosis is fair to good depending on infection control and hemorrhage severity.

Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) Symptoms: Failure to thrive, high susceptibility to infections (e.g., pneumonia, enteritis, septicemia). Affects T- and B-cell immunity. Reported in Arabian foals and some dog breeds like Basset Hounds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Broad-spectrum antibiotics, IV fluid therapy, strict isolation.
Causative: Bone marrow transplantation may be curative but is rarely feasible in practice.
Supportive: Prognosis is grave—most affected animals die by 16 weeks of age due to overwhelming infections.

Canine Granulocytopathy Syndrome (Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency) Symptoms: Recurrent pyogenic infections such as pyoderma, omphalophlebitis, and pneumonia; delayed wound healing.
Treatment Symptomatic: Culture-based antibiotic therapy and supportive care.
Causative: No curative treatment; defect lies in neutrophil adhesion molecules.
Supportive: Prognosis is poor due to persistent, recurring infections and impaired wound healing.

Complement Component 3 (C3) Deficiency Symptoms: Recurrent infections involving the skin, respiratory tract, and urinary tract in homozygous animals. Heterozygous animals are typically asymptomatic.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluid therapy and aggressive management of infections with appropriate antibiotics.
Causative: Inherited deficiency of C3 protein affecting immune defense mechanisms.
Supportive: Prognosis is guarded in homozygous animals due to ongoing susceptibility to infections.

Pelger-Huët Anomaly Symptoms: Usually asymptomatic; may be associated with smaller litter sizes. Hyposegmented neutrophils noted on blood smears.
Treatment Symptomatic: No clinical treatment required.
Causative: Congenital anomaly of neutrophil segmentation.
Supportive: This is a benign, incidental finding. Prognosis is excellent.

Lymph Node Atrophy Symptoms: Weight loss, poor development, fever, lethargy, anorexia, chronic or recurrent secondary infections.
Treatment Symptomatic: Treat secondary infections with appropriate antimicrobial therapy.
Causative: Address underlying cause such as viral infection, malnutrition, or drug exposure.
Supportive: Provide nutritional support and discontinue immunosuppressive drugs if possible. Prognosis varies with the severity and cause of immunosuppression.

Secondary Lymphedema Symptoms: Weight loss, fever, anorexia, localized pitting edema, commonly affecting limbs, genitalia, neck, or thorax depending on lymphatic involvement. Caused by acquired damage or obstruction of lymphatic vessels or lymph nodes due to trauma, infection, neoplasia, or surgery.
Treatment Symptomatic: Long-term antibiotics if infection present; diuretics to reduce fluid load.
Causative: Address underlying disorder; chemotherapy or radiation for neoplastic causes.
Supportive: Conservative medical management or surgery to reduce edema if irreversible.

Primary Lymphedema Symptoms: Pitting edema from a young age, especially in pelvic limbs; possible severe limb enlargement; lymph nodes may appear normal or absent. Congenital or developmental abnormality of the lymphatic system. Seen in breeds like Bulldogs and Labrador Retrievers.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pressure bandages, splints, or compression garments to manage edema.
Causative: None applicable (congenital).
Supportive: Maintain good skin hygiene to prevent infection; surgical excision if conservative management fails.

Craniomandibular Osteopathy (CMO) Symptoms: Difficulty chewing, pain on jaw movement, weight loss, dehydration, intermittent fever, reduced range of motion in jaw. Seen in terrier breeds (e.g., West Highland White), 3–8 months of age. Proliferative bone disease affecting mandible, zygomatic arches, and tympanic bullae. Likely genetic.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain control with NSAIDs; soft/liquid diets; feeding tube in severe cases.
Causative: Genetic—no direct treatment.
Supportive: NSAIDs: Carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID, Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID, Deracoxib 2 mg/kg PO SID; euthanasia may be considered in intractable cases.

Hypertrophic Osteodystrophy (HOD) Symptoms: Limb swelling (often all four limbs), low-grade lameness, pyrexia, hot and painful limbs. Peracute cases may show lethargy, dehydration, severe pain on palpation. Common in large and giant breed puppies, mostly males.
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs such as Carprofen 2 mg/kg PO BID, Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID, Deracoxib 2 mg/kg PO SID.
Causative: Discontinue excessive vitamin/mineral supplementation.
Supportive: Rest, soft bedding, frequent turning; Prednisolone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID may help; surgical correction for limb deformities if present.

Hyalohyphomycosis Symptoms: Variable by organ system: nasal passages, sinuses, lungs, CNS, myocardium, bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, kidneys, liver, pleura. Dogs may have pneumonia, cutaneous or subcutaneous nodules localized or disseminated. Caused by saprophytic soil fungi.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care depending on organ involvement.
Causative: Antifungals: Itraconazole 10 mg/kg PO daily, Terbinafine 10 mg/kg PO daily, Voriconazole 5 mg/kg PO daily, Posaconazole 5 mg/kg PO daily, Amphotericin B lipid complex (Dogs 2 g IV 3×/week, Cats 1 g IV 3×/week).
Supportive: Topical Natamycin or Miconazole as needed. Prognosis grave in CNS cases.

Salivary Mucocele Symptoms: Nonpainful swelling in ventral or ventrolateral neck region. Dysphagia, ptyalism, dyspnea may be observed. Often results from ruptured salivary ducts causing saliva accumulation in surrounding tissues.
Treatment Symptomatic: Drainage of mucocele.
Causative: Surgical removal (sialoadenectomy) of affected salivary gland and duct.
Supportive: None specifically.

Salivary Gland Infarction Symptoms: Acute, painful, firm swelling of salivary gland. Fever, leukocytosis, anorexia. Can be associated with salivary neoplasia due to infarction and tissue necrosis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care as most cases resolve within 10 days.
Causative: Reevaluate for neoplasia or infection if no improvement.
Supportive: Monitor clinical status.

Sialolithiasis Symptoms: Salivary gland pain and swelling, dysphagia, ptyalism. Rupture of duct may cause fistula formation. Rare condition.
Treatment Symptomatic: None specifically.
Causative: Surgical removal of salivary stones.
Supportive: Surgical resection of duct and gland if fistula or rupture occurs.

SialadenosisSymptoms: Nonpainful salivary gland enlargement. On palpation, retching, vomiting, dysphagia, gagging, lip smacking, and excessive salivation (ptyalism) may occur. Believed to be neurogenic in origin.
Treatment Symptomatic: Phenobarbital 2 mg/kg PO BID.
Causative: None specified.
Supportive: Monitor response and adjust dosage as needed; prognosis is good with therapy.

Hypervitaminosis A Symptoms: Irritability, poor grooming, lethargy, gingivitis, and lameness. Cats may show abnormal posture, neck stiffness, ventriflexion of the neck, depression, and paresis of one or both thoracic limbs. Most commonly seen in cats fed raw liver diets chronically.
Treatment Symptomatic: Manage pain and inflammation with Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID for 4 days.
Causative: Discontinue vitamin A-rich foods or supplements such as raw liver.
Supportive: In older cats, supportive care for chronic bone changes. In young animals, permanent skeletal abnormalities may require long-term monitoring.

Histiocytoma / Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis Symptoms: Solitary, round, pink skin nodules that may ulcerate. Typically non-painful, smooth-surfaced lesions in young dogs. Regional lymph node enlargement may occur. Feline cases are rare and often systemic.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor lesion progression; avoid immunosuppressive drugs.
Causative: No treatment required for benign histiocytomas in dogs—often regress spontaneously. Surgical removal or cryotherapy for persistent lesions.
Supportive: Feline histiocytosis has no definitive treatment and a poor prognosis.

Canine Superficial Bacterial FolliculitisA superficial bacterial infection of the hair follicles, often secondary to underlying skin disease.
Symptoms: Spreading alopecia, easily epilated hair, papules, pustules, epidermal collarettes, crusts, moist dermatitis, pyotraumatic folliculitis, and draining tracts.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Topical antiseptic shampoos such as benzoyl peroxide, chlorhexidine, or ethyl lactate.
Causative: Oral antibiotics including Amoxicillin-clavulanate 50 mg/kg PO BID, Cephalexin 22 mg/kg PO BID, Cefadroxil 22 mg/kg PO BID, or Cefpodoxime 10 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive: Continue antibiotic therapy for 1–3 weeks beyond clinical resolution to prevent recurrence.

Tooth Root AbscessA bacterial infection of the dental pulp or surrounding periodontium, often secondary to dental trauma, periodontal disease, or fractured teeth.
Symptoms: Sneezing, oral pain, difficulty chewing, dysphagia, excessive salivation, and focal facial swelling with or without purulent drainage. Infection may extend to adjacent bone, nasal cavity, or soft tissues.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Pain management with NSAIDs such as Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID for 3–5 days or opioids if severe.
Causative: Definitive dental extraction of the affected tooth, with systemic antibiotics such as Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID, Clindamycin 5.5–11 mg/kg PO BID, or Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID based on culture or empiric selection.
Supportive: Feed soft food for several days post-extraction, maintain oral hygiene, and consider follow-up dental radiographs or advanced imaging for monitoring.

PanhypopituitarismA congenital or acquired failure of the pituitary gland leading to deficient secretion of multiple anterior pituitary hormones.
Symptoms: Clumsiness, altered behavior, lethargy, vision loss, excessive thirst, polyuria, incoordination, collapse with exercise, weight loss, and dilated pupils.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Monitor and manage hydration, nutrition, and activity to avoid collapse.
Causative: Hormone replacement including thyroid hormone (levothyroxine), progestins (e.g., medroxyprogesterone), and porcine-derived growth hormone (experimental use). Surgical removal of cystic pituitary lesions may be considered.
Supportive: Routine monitoring of endocrine levels and adjustment of therapy as needed. Prognosis depends on severity and treatment response.

OtotoxicityDamage to cochlear and/or vestibular structures caused by toxic agents such as aminoglycoside antibiotics, polymyxin B, cisplatin, or certain antiseptics.
Symptoms: Progressive or acute hearing loss, head tilt, failure to respond to auditory cues, altered behavior, and difficulty arousing from deep sleep.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Behavioral training using visual cues or hand signals for communication.
Causative: Immediate discontinuation of all ototoxic medications; thorough ear cleaning to remove wax or debris that may harbor toxic agents.
Supportive: Rehabilitation options such as bone-anchored hearing aids for severe or irreversible hearing loss. Prevention includes avoiding ototoxic agents in predisposed breeds or patients with ruptured tympanic membranes.

Deep Bacterial Pyoderma and FurunculosisA deep pyogenic infection penetrating the dermis or subcutaneous layers; rupture of hair follicles can cause furunculosis, often linked to staphylococcal infection and immune response.
Symptoms: Papules, pustules, draining tracts, hemorrhagic bullae, ulcers, painful or itchy lesions, alopecia, and regional lymphadenopathy.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Clean and debride lesions; apply antiseptic shampoos containing benzoyl peroxide, chlorhexidine, or ethyl lactate twice weekly.
Causative: Amoxicillin 13 mg/kg PO BID, Cephalexin 22 mg/kg PO BID, Clindamycin 20 mg/kg PO BID, Enrofloxacin 0.12 mg/kg/kg PO SID, Erythromycin 10 mg/kg PO TID, or Lincomycin 22 mg/kg PO BID. Culture and sensitivity recommended before selection.
Supportive: Extended antibiotic therapy for 4–6 weeks or longer until complete resolution.

Canine Systemic HistiocytosisA rare condition involving proliferation of activated interstitial dendritic cells and histiocytes, often progressing with systemic signs and potentially mimicking immune-mediated or neoplastic disorders.
Symptoms: Multiple cutaneous plaques or nodules with possible involvement of lymph nodes, nasal mucosa, and eyes.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Supportive care to manage discomfort and secondary infections.
Causative: Trial of immunosuppressive therapy such as corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclosporine, or leflunomide.
Supportive: Monitor for systemic progression. Prognosis is guarded due to poor responsiveness to therapy; disease may wax and wane or become progressive.

Canine Cutaneous HistiocytosisA benign histiocytic disorder limited to the skin and subcutis, presumed to be immune-mediated and typically not involving internal organs.
Symptoms: Firm, non-painful nodules on the skin and subcutis without systemic involvement.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Supportive care to maintain skin integrity and reduce inflammation.
Causative: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID as first-line therapy; alternatives include azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID, cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO SID, or leflunomide 3 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive: Tetracycline + niacinamide 400 mg each PO TID in refractory cases. Response is generally good, with regression of lesions over several weeks to months.

Megaesophagus Symptoms:Regurgitation of undigested food or water, halitosis, weight loss, poor body condition, ptyalism, and respiratory signs such as moist cough, crackles, and dyspnea due to aspiration pneumonia.
Treatment Symptomatic : Feed small, frequent, calorie-dense meals; use upright feeding and keep elevated post-meal.
Causative : Identify and treat underlying causes such as myasthenia gravis or esophageal stricture (if applicable).
Supportive : Broad-spectrum antibiotics if aspiration pneumonia occurs; consider gastrostomy tube in severe or refractory cases.

Glucocorticoid-Induced Infertility Symptoms:Absence of estrus cycling, infertility in females.
Treatment Symptomatic : Monitor reproductive hormone status.
Causative : Taper and discontinue glucocorticoids safely.
Supportive : Monitor for return of estrus cycles over time; endocrine consultation if needed.

Uveodermatologic Syndrome Symptoms:Anterior uveitis, blindness, erosions/ulcers of skin and mucous membranes, depigmentation (eyelids, nose, lips, footpads, scrotum), scaling, and erythema.
Treatment Symptomatic : Topical corticosteroids and atropine for ocular inflammation.
Causative : Immunosuppressive therapy with Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO SID, taper; add Azathioprine(Imuran) 2 mg/kg PO SID if unresponsive.
Supportive : Monitor for secondary infections, provide dermatologic support.

Protozoal Polyradiculoneuritis Symptoms:Progressive ascending paralysis, muscle atrophy (especially pelvic limbs), and rigidity in puppies.
Treatment Symptomatic : Nursing care and physiotherapy.
Causative : Clindamycin 20 mg/kg PO BID, Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine 15–30 mg/kg PO BID, and Pyrimethamine 1 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive : Nutritional support, maintain hydration, prevent pressure sores.

Acute Polyradiculoneuritis Symptoms:Stiff gait, flaccid symmetrical tetraparesis, pelvic limb weakness, hyperesthesia, and potential respiratory paralysis.
Treatment Symptomatic : Respiratory monitoring and support if needed.
Causative : No specific causative ; immune-mediated in origin.
Supportive : Physiotherapy, proper bedding, hydration, nutrition; most dogs recover in 2–4 weeks.

Inherited Motor Neuron Disease / Spinal Muscular Atrophy Symptoms:Generalized weakness, muscle atrophy, reduced reflexes, and decreased muscle tone.
Treatment Symptomatic : None effective for motor neuron degeneration.
Causative : No curative treatment available; condition is genetic.
Supportive : Provide nursing care, mobility assistance, and ensure quality of life; prognosis is poor.

Spinal Cord Trauma Symptoms:Neurologic signs reflect site of injury; neurological exam is performed before sedation/analgesia; progressive hemorrhagic myelomalacia suspected with ongoing deterioration.
Treatment Symptomatic : Exercise restriction, analgesia, soft bedding, manage bladder evacuation.
Causative : Methylprednisolone sodium succinate 30 mg/kg IV initially, followed by 0.12 mg/kg/kg IV after 6 hours; surgical decompression if spinal instability present.
Supportive : Stabilize cardiovascular and respiratory function, immobilize spine, strict cage rest for 6 weeks.

Vertebral and Spinal Tumors Symptoms:Pain, transverse myelopathy, ataxia, paresis, paralysis, pathologic fractures, hemorrhage or ischemia; signs vary with tumor location.
Treatment Symptomatic : Pain management with corticosteroids (e.g., Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO SID).
Causative : Chemotherapy, radiation therapy, surgical decompression depending on tumor type and location.
Supportive : Palliative care, physical therapy; prognosis is typically poor.

Ischemic Myelopathy (FCEM) Symptoms:Sudden onset of nonprogressive, nonpainful ataxia, paresis or paralysis, associated with trauma or vigorous activity.
Treatment Symptomatic : Physical rehabilitation and pain relief.
Causative : None specific—vascular infarction.
Supportive : Methylprednisolone 30 mg/kg IV, followed by 0.12 mg/kg/kg every 6 hours for 48 hours; physiotherapy, hydrotherapy.

Protozoal Meningomyelitis Symptoms:Progressive paralysis, muscle contracture, dysphagia, jaw paresis, fever, lymphadenopathy, pneumonia, chorioretinitis, especially severe in puppies.
Treatment Symptomatic : Nutritional and respiratory support as needed.
Causative : Clindamycin 0.12 mg/kg/kg IV or PO BID, Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine 0.12 mg/kg/kg PO BID, and Pyrimethamine 0.5 mg/kg PO SID for 28 days.
Supportive : Physical therapy, manage secondary infections, monitoring hydration and organ function.

Rickettsial Meningomyelitis Symptoms:Mental depression, fever, vomiting, diarrhea, dyspnea, hemorrhagic diatheses, joint pain, lymphadenopathy; CNS involvement.
Treatment Symptomatic : Anti-inflammatory and supportive care.
Causative : Tetracycline 25 mg/kg PO TID for 14 days, Doxycycline 0.12 mg/kg/kg PO BID, or Chloramphenicol 25 mg/kg PO TID for 7 days.
Supportive : Fluid therapy, control of seizures or fever, monitor organ function.

Distemper Myelitis Symptoms:Paraparesis, paraphimosis, urinary incontinence, myoclonus during sleep, paraspinal hyperesthesia, esotropia, variable progression.
Treatment Symptomatic : Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO SID for 3 days; seizure management if needed.
Causative : No cure once neurologic signs develop; vaccine prior to exposure is preventive.
Supportive : Nutritional support, physical therapy, nursing care; prognosis poor.

Steroid-Responsive Meningitis-Arteritis Symptoms:Young large-breed dogs; fever, anorexia, cervical rigidity, hyperesthesia, polyarthritis, glomerulonephritis, ataxia.
Treatment Symptomatic : Pain control and hydration.
Causative : Prednisone 4 mg/kg PO SID x 2 days, tapering down (2 mg/kg for 14 days, 1 mg/kg for 28 days, 0.5 mg/kg for 2 months) as clinical signs resolve.
Supportive : Monitor for relapse, joint support, long-term follow-up.

Horner’s Syndrome Symptoms:Miosis, ptosis, enophthalmos, third eyelid protrusion, possible concurrent facial paralysis or middle ear disease.
Treatment Symptomatic : Topical phenylephrine to reduce third eyelid protrusion (only if vision is impaired).
Causative : Treat underlying disease (e.g., otitis media, spinal trauma).
Supportive : Monitor eye function; lubricants if reduced blinking.

Efferent Mydriasis (Internal Ophthalmoplegia) Symptoms:Loss of pupil constriction, ptosis, resting esotropia, menace response absent; may occur with orbital disease or dysautonomia.
Treatment Symptomatic : Diluted topical pilocarpine may reduce pupil dilation.
Causative : Discontinue parasympatholytic drugs if used; address underlying orbital or CNS pathology.
Supportive : Eye protection, monitor for progression; neurologic work-up as needed.

Afferent Mydriasis Symptoms:Dilated pupil, retinal detachment or atrophy, chorioretinitis, papilledema, optic neuritis, and systemic signs such as PU/PD/PP in some causes.
Treatment Symptomatic: None specific for pupil dilation; treat opportunistic discomfort.
Causative: Correct underlying retinal or optic nerve pathology (e.g., taurine supplementation, glaucoma management).
Supportive: Ophthalmic monitoring; vision preservation strategies.

Fibrosing Strabismus Symptoms:Severe uni- or bilateral ventromedial globe rotation; globe cannot be repositioned manually (forced duction test positive).
Treatment Symptomatic: Visual impairment counseling; ocular lubrication if exposure keratopathy develops.
Causative: Surgical incision of fibrotic bands—often limited success.
Supportive: Long-term visual function monitoring; prognosis guarded.

Neurotrophic Keratitis Symptoms:Reduced corneal sensation, nonpainful corneal erosions, possible facial nerve signs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Lubricating ointments to protect cornea.
Causative: Topical cyclosporine BID; use Neomycin‑Polymyxin‑Bacitracin ointment with extreme caution in cats.
Supportive: Prevent self-trauma; monitor healing; prognosis poor.

Feline Corneal Sequestration Symptoms:Brown or black corneal lesion, edema, ulceration, pain, ocular discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Lubricating ointments; atropine drops BID for comfort.
Causative: Manual sloughing or superficial keratectomy if lesion enlarges.
Supportive: Monitor for infection; manage underlying FHV if present.

Feline Eosinophilic Keratitis Symptoms:Pink or white vascularized corneal lesions with yellow-white exudate, blepharospasm, and mucoid discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical lubricants as needed.
Causative: Topical dexamethasone or prednisolone acetate QID; oral prednisone 7 mg/day for 10 days; megestrol acetate 0.5 mg/kg PO SID for 2 weeks.
Supportive: Monitor for diabetes mellitus; regular ocular examinations.

Pigmentary Keratitis Symptoms:Corneal pigmentation leading to visual impairment and opacity; common in brachycephalic breeds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Lubricating drops or ointments BID‑QID.
Causative: Correct underlying causes (e.g., KCS, exposure); topical cyclosporine BID or tacrolimus BID‑QID.
Supportive: Eyelid conformation correction surgery if needed; monitor corneal health.

Chronic Superficial Keratitis (Pannus) Symptoms:Red-grey corneal infiltrate, possible pigment on third eyelid, irregular corneal thickening.
Treatment Symptomatic: Lubrication as needed; manage ocular discomfort.
Causative: Topical 0.1% dexamethasone or 1% prednisolone acetate; topical cyclosporine 0.2% BID; subconjunctival steroids in severe cases or adjunct beta‑radiation/cryosurgery.
Supportive: Regular follow‑up; monitor for corneal ulceration or pigmentation.

Persistent Corneal Erosions (Indolent Ulcer)
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical atropine for comfort; hypertonic saline drops BID.
Causative: Debride loose epithelium; perform grid keratotomy (23‑g needle); topical antibiotic-chondroitin combinations TID.
Supportive: Frequent lubrication; restrict activity; monitor healing progression.

Corneal Ulceration (Bacterial) Symptoms:Blepharospasm, stromal ulceration, mucopurulent discharge, fibrin or plaque formation, ocular pain.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical atropine every 4 hours; NSAIDs such as aspirin 10 mg/kg PO BID or carprofen 2 mg/kg PO BID.
Causative: Topical antibiotic therapy—e.g., tobramycin, ciprofloxacin; neomycin carefully in cats; systemic antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin 22 mg/kg PO BID) if deep or infected.
Supportive: Conjunctival flap surgery for deep ulcers; monitor healing; manage discomfort.

Bacterial Keratitis (Deep Stromal Ulcer with Plaque) Symptoms:Severe pain, blepharospasm, stromal abscessation, uveitis, corneal edema, peripheral vascularization (“brush border”), and plaque.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical atropine QID, NSAIDs (aspirin or carprofen), and analgesics.
Causative: Topical fluoroquinolone (ciprofloxacin); systemic antibiotics guided by culture; conjunctival flap surgery if needed for deep stromal involvement.
Supportive: Sterile lubrication; pain control; close ophthalmologic follow-up.

Fungal Keratitis Symptoms:Similar to bacterial keratitis—marked pain, blepharospasm, stromal abscess, uveitis, corneal edema, vascularization and plaque formation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Atropine drops, NSAIDs as tolerated.
Causative: Natamycin ophthalmic drops; systemic or topical fluconazole or miconazole; conjunctival flap for nonhealing or deep lesions.
Supportive: Daily lubrication; surgical intervention when needed; ophthalmologist consultation recommended.

Congenital Vestibular Disease Symptoms:3–12 week-old Dobermans, German Shepherds, Siamese, and Burmese cats. Head tilt, ataxia, circling, deafness.
Treatment Symptomatic: No specific treatment available; supportive care for balance issues.
Causative: None; congenital defect.
Supportive: Environmental safety adaptations; monitor for improvements; deafness usually permanent.

Hydranencephaly and Porencephaly Symptoms:Typically noticed within weeks of birth. Blindness, behavioral abnormalities (e.g., compulsive behavior, indifference, episodes of rage), central blindness.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antiepileptics like phenobarbital 2 mg/kg PO BID, potassium bromide 20 mg/kg PO SID.
Causative: None; congenital cerebral anomalies.
Supportive: Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO BID (tapered to QOD), dexamethasone 0.05 mg/kg PO SID (tapered), furosemide 1 mg/kg PO BID, acetazolamide 0.1 mg/kg PO TID; prognosis is guarded to poor.

Rickettsial Meningoencephalitis Symptoms:Seizures, spinal hyperesthesia, nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis primarily involving plasma cells.
Treatment Symptomatic: Manage seizures with anticonvulsants; provide pain relief for spinal sensitivity.
Causative: Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO BID for 3 weeks (effective against Rickettsial agents).
Supportive: Early intervention critical; monitor neurological status; residual deficits possible despite treatment.

Pain-Induced Aggression Symptoms:Sudden and severe aggression when a specific area is touched; pain-related aggression suspected when linked to body handling.
Treatment Symptomatic: Use protective gear; minimize restraint during handling.
Causative: Identify and treat the underlying source of pain (injury, illness).
Supportive: Gentle handling; analgesics or anti-inflammatories as needed.

Maternal Aggression Symptoms:Aggression when individuals approach or attempt to handle the offspring; includes biting or scratching.
Treatment Symptomatic: Avoid provoking interactions during maternal guarding.
Causative: None required; natural protective behavior.
Supportive: Provide a secure nesting area; allow postpartum female to adjust; limit access to unfamiliar individuals or animals.

Redirected Aggression Symptoms:Aggression directed toward a nearby person or animal when the original target is inaccessible (e.g., cat redirected while fighting another animal).
Treatment Symptomatic: Prevent access to secondary targets during high arousal.
Causative: Address and treat the root cause of the original aggression.
Supportive: Educate owners about triggers and prevention; monitor behavior patterns.

Predatory Aggression Symptoms:Stalking, chasing, and pouncing behavior; cats kill with a bite to the neck, dogs bite or chase perceived prey.
Treatment Symptomatic: Avoid high-risk scenarios; monitor during outdoor activity.
Causative: Not applicable—natural instinctual behavior.
Supportive: Keep cats indoors in sensitive areas; restrain dogs with predatory history in secure enclosures.

Human-Directed Dominance Aggression Symptoms:Staring, erect ears, raised tail, approaching confidently; typically occurs in intact males aged 1–3 years.
Treatment Symptomatic: Train to follow calm, consistent obedience commands.
Causative: Castration of intact males; behavioral correction strategies.
Supportive: Use SSRIs, TCAs, or hormone-based therapies like megestrol acetate; reinforce non-threatening communication techniques.

Interdog Dominance Aggression Syndrome Symptoms:Staring, erect ears, tail held high, confident approach; common in 1–3-year-old intact males.
Treatment Symptomatic: Muzzle and confine the dog using an indoor leash with head collar.
Causative: Teach the dog consistent commands, especially "down" when another dog approaches.
Supportive: Use obedience training to redirect dominance behaviors; ensure a calm, consistent environment.

Possessive Aggression Syndrome Symptoms:Aggression when defending objects such as food, toys, or bones; no other signs of aggression.
Treatment Symptomatic: Avoid triggering situations involving the contested item.
Causative: Remove objects from the environment when possible.
Supportive: Implement desensitization and counter-conditioning; provide daily guidance for owners.

Territorial Aggression Syndrome Symptoms:Aggression toward people or dogs entering the dog’s territory; not aggressive off territory.
Treatment Symptomatic: Keep the dog indoors; use a muzzle or leash when visitors arrive.
Causative: Not applicable—territorial behavior is instinctive.
Supportive: Positive reinforcement-based obedience training; manage environmental exposure to triggers.

Protective Aggression Syndrome Symptoms:Aggression when someone approaches the protected person or animal; aggression can be disrupted with a command.
Treatment Symptomatic: Use a muzzle and head collar around strangers.
Causative: None specific—protective aggression is often genetic.
Supportive: Obedience training using positive reinforcement; controlled exposure to known triggers.

Redirected Aggression Syndrome Symptoms:Aggression toward a secondary target (e.g., owner) when the primary target is inaccessible.
Treatment Symptomatic: Prevent interference during high-arousal situations.
Causative: Identify and treat the source of primary aggression.
Supportive: Educate owners about early warning signs; manage the environment; consistent monitoring.

Maternal Aggression Symptoms:Aggression when someone approaches or interacts with the young; includes growling, biting, or scratching.
Treatment Symptomatic: Avoid disturbing the female and her offspring during the postpartum period.
Causative: None—protective maternal behavior is instinctive.
Supportive: Familiarize the female with caretakers before birth; provide a secure nest; keep unfamiliar animals away.

Predatory Aggression Symptoms:Cats chase, pounce, and kill small game with a neck bite. Dogs chase, grab, and violently shake prey. Behavior becomes problematic when directed toward livestock or humans.
Treatment Symptomatic: Restrain dogs with a history of predatory behavior at all times.
Causative: None; behavior is instinctive.
Supportive: Keep small animals indoors; use secure enclosures and consistent supervision to prevent incidents.

Pulmonic Stenosis Symptoms:Most dogs are asymptomatic. In severe cases: fatigue, exercise intolerance, abdominal distension, ascites. Sudden death in ~30% of severe cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor for signs of right-sided CHF.
Causative: Transcatheter balloon valvuloplasty is the treatment of choice.
Supportive: Regular follow-up and activity restriction in high-risk cases.

Aortic Stenosis Symptoms:Often asymptomatic. Severe cases show fatigue, exercise intolerance, tachypnea, and respiratory distress due to pulmonary edema.
Treatment Symptomatic: Atenolol 2 mg/kg PO BID for arrhythmia control.
Causative: Transcatheter balloon dilation or surgical resection of the stenotic lesion.
Supportive: Regular cardiac evaluations and exercise restriction.

AV Valvular Dysplasia / Malformation Symptoms:No signs until CHF or atrial fibrillation. Signs include exercise intolerance, cyanosis, and fatigue. Mild cases may be normal.
Treatment Symptomatic: ACE inhibitors (Enalapril), Beta-blockers (Carvedilol or Metoprolol).
Causative: Surgical valve repair; balloon valvuloplasty in stenosis.
Supportive: Manage CHF signs; restrict intense physical activity.

NSAID-Induced Vomiting Symptoms:Vomiting, especially after NSAID administration.
Treatment Symptomatic: Provide GI protectants (e.g., omeprazole or sucralfate, if applicable).
Causative: Discontinue NSAID use immediately.
Supportive: Monitor for GI ulcers or bleeding; consider alternative pain management.

AV Valvular Degeneration Symptoms:Cough, tachypnea, dyspnea, anorexia, weight loss, murmur, jugular distension, and pink froth at nostrils. Common in older dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Furosemide 4 mg/kg (IV/PO BID), Butorphanol 1 mg/kg (PO BID), Digoxin 0.01 mg/kg (PO BID).
Causative: Vasodilators such as Pimobendan 0.4 mg/kg (PO BID), ACE inhibitors like Enalapril 0.5 mg/kg (PO BID).
Supportive: Hydralazine, Amlodipine, Nitroprusside; reduce dietary sodium; monitor for arrhythmias and CHF.

Drug-induced Vomiting Symptoms:Vomiting.
Treatment Symptomatic: None specified.
Causative: Stop using cardiac glycosides, Xylazine, or Penicillamine.
Supportive: Monitor hydration and clinical recovery.

Diaphragmatic HerniaA defect in the diaphragm allowing abdominal organs to herniate into the thoracic cavity, often secondary to trauma.
Symptoms: Vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia, weight loss, lethargy, dyspnea, hydrothorax, icterus, tachycardia, inaudible heart/lung sounds, history of trauma.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Oxygen therapy and stabilization before anesthesia.
Causative: Surgical repair via ventral midline celiotomy after stabilization; early surgery is recommended in traumatic cases.
Supportive: IV fluids for shock stabilization; analgesics and antibiotics perioperatively.
Prognosis: Good with timely surgical intervention.

Peritoneopericardial Diaphragmatic Hernia (PPDH) Symptoms:Some animals show no clinical signs; often an incidental finding. ECGs may be normal or show low-voltage complexes. Echocardiography reveals abdominal viscera in the pericardial space.
Treatment Symptomatic: Clinical signs vary; monitor if asymptomatic.
Causative: Surgical repair for symptomatic animals and strongly recommended for young animals regardless of symptoms.
Supportive: Prognosis excellent post-surgery. In older animals, adhesions may complicate reduction.

Pericardial Effusion Symptoms:Lethargy (53%), respiratory difficulty (44%), collapse (40%), reduced appetite (38%), vomiting (30%), polyuria, abdominal distention (23%), polydipsia, weakness, and coughing.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care to manage clinical signs.
Causative: Pericardiocentesis for fluid removal; bacterial pericarditis treated with pericardectomy, chest drainage, and antibiotics for up to 6 months. No effective treatment for FIP.
Supportive: Prognosis is good with aggressive treatment; palliative care for untreatable cases.

Effusive-Constrictive Pericarditis Symptoms:Right-sided CHF signs, abdominal distention, muscle wasting, ascites, jugular distention, muffled heart sounds, sinus tachycardia, low-voltage QRS complexes.
Treatment Symptomatic: CHF management as needed.
Causative: Pericardectomy.
Supportive: Prognosis is excellent unless there is severe epicardial involvement or adhesions.

Constrictive Pericarditis Symptoms:Edema, abdominal distention, muscle wasting, ascites, jugular distention, muffled heart sounds, sinus tachycardia, low-voltage QRS complexes.
Treatment Symptomatic: Management of right-sided heart failure.
Causative: Surgical excision when needed.
Supportive: Prognosis is poor with severe epicardial fibrosis or adhesions.

Viral Rhinitis and Sinusitis Symptoms:Snoring, halitosis, sneezing, gagging, nasal disallergy, serous nasal discharge, mucopurulent discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Maintain hydration and nutrition.
Causative: Aciclovir 200 mg/kg (PO, BD); broad-spectrum antibiotics for secondary bacterial infections.
Supportive: General supportive care.

Bacterial Rhinitis and Sinusitis Symptoms:Sneezing, snoring, halitosis, gagging, nasal disallergy, serous and mucopurulent discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Clean debris from external nares; nebulization.
Causative: Broad-spectrum antibiotics for 4 weeks; pseudoephedrine (Dogs) 30 mg (PO, BD), (Cats) 3 mg/kg (PO, BD); Diphenhydramine 3 mg/kg (PO, TID).
Supportive: Topical decongestants like Phenylephrine (1.25%).

Fungal Rhinitis and Sinusitis Symptoms:Sneezing, gagging, nasal disallergy, serous and mucopurulent nasal discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive management for nasal inflammation.
Causative: Aspergillosis: Topical 1% Clotrimazole flush + cream; Ketoconazole 5 mg/kg (PO, BD) for 8 weeks, Fluconazole 2.5 mg/kg (PO, BD), Itraconazole 5 mg/kg (PO, BD) for 2 months. Cryptococcosis: Fluconazole 4 mg/kg (PO, SID), Ketoconazole 10 mg/kg (PO, BD), Itraconazole 10 mg/kg (PO, SID), Amphotericin B 0.5 mg/kg (IV, q72h), Flucytosine 100 mg (PO, QID) for 2 months.
Supportive: Antifungal therapy adjusted per species and severity.

Foreign Body Rhinitis and Sinusitis Symptoms:Attempt to remove, hemorrhagic discharge (trauma/coagulopathies), unilateral discharge, ulceration of nares, facial asymmetry, loss of airway patency.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care post-removal.
Causative: Remove small foreign bodies with forceps; push larger ones into pharynx for extraction; rhinotomy if embedded; antimicrobial therapy post-procedure.
Supportive: Nasal lavage and pain management.

Parasitic Rhinitis and Sinusitis Symptoms:Sneezing, mild nasal discharge, bilateral discharge, ulceration of nares, facial asymmetry, loss of airway patency.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive nasal decongestion.
Causative: Milbemycin oxime 0.8 mg/kg (PO, weekly x3); Selamectin 6 mg/kg (SC); Ivermectin 0.3 mg/kg (SC or PO, 2x/3 weeks); Fenbendazole 25 mg/kg (PO, BD) for 10 days. In cats: Ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg (SC/PO), repeated in 3 weeks.
Supportive: Decongestants and hydration.

Dental Disease–Associated Rhinitis and Sinusitis Symptoms:Hemorrhagic discharge, unilateral discharge, coagulopathies, ulceration of nares, facial asymmetry, airway obstruction.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive post-dental care.
Causative: Extraction of diseased teeth; closure of oronasal fistulas with mucoperiosteal flap; antimicrobial therapy.
Supportive: Irrigation and pain control.

Malignant Tumors Symptoms:Nasal discharge, sneezing, epistaxis, epiphora, facial asymmetry, neurological signs (cats: nasal masses, stertor, CNS signs).
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs like Piroxicam.
Causative: Surgery + radiation; Cisplatin, Doxorubicin, Carboplatin in combination therapies.
Supportive: Radiation alone may be effective in feline cases.

Brachycephalic Syndrome Symptoms:Stertor, snoring, pharyngeal flutter, inflammation, regurgitation, gagging, vomiting, dyspnea, cyanosis, collapse, exercise intolerance.
Treatment Symptomatic: Dexamethasone 1.5 mg/kg (SC, IM), Prednisolone 1.5 mg/kg (SC, IM), Metoclopramide 0.3 mg/kg (SC), Pantoprazole 1 mg/kg (IV).
Causative: Surgical correction of stenotic nares, elongated soft palate, etc.
Supportive: Tracheostomy if required; post-op swelling management.

Neoplastic Rhinitis and Sinusitis Symptoms:Sneezing, snoring, halitosis, gagging, nasal disallergy, serous and mucopurulent discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Relief of obstruction symptoms.
Causative: Sinus trephination and irrigation; rhinotomy, turbinectomy, ethmoid curettage, frontal sinus ablation with fat grafts.
Supportive: Monitoring and repeat imaging.

Idiopathic Rhinitis and Sinusitis Symptoms:Sneezing, snoring, halitosis, gagging, nasal disallergy, serous and mucopurulent discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Decongestants, supportive care.
Causative: Oral corticosteroids for cats; antihistamines, inhaled steroids, doxycycline, and azithromycin in dogs.
Supportive: Ongoing monitoring and periodic reevaluation.

Laryngitis Symptoms:Cough, nasal discharge, dysphagia, voice changes, epiphora, exercise intolerance, inflammation beyond larynx, associated with smoke inhalation or aspiration.
Treatment Symptomatic: Butorphanol 0.1 mg/kg (PO, BD), Hydrocodone 0.22 mg/kg (PO, SID).
Causative: Systemic antibiotics and corticosteroids.
Supportive: Oxygen via nasopharyngeal tube or oxygen cage; temporary tracheostomy if needed.

Laryngeal Neoplasia Symptoms:Voice change, stridor, dysphagia, coughing, dyspnea.
Treatment Symptomatic: Support airway function; corticosteroids to reduce inflammation.
Causative: Radiation therapy for lymphoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and mast cell tumor; chemotherapy especially for lymphoma.
Supportive: Nutritional support and oxygen supplementation as needed; surgical excision if mass is obstructive.

Hypoplastic Trachea Symptoms:Inspiratory difficulty, stridorous sounds on inspiration, coughing or gagging, exercise intolerance, regurgitation, worsens with excitement.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy and corticosteroids during acute episodes.
Causative: Surgical correction of associated abnormalities (elongated soft palate, everted laryngeal saccules, stenotic nares).
Supportive: Control respiratory infections early, manage obesity, and use diuretics and vasodilators cautiously.

Parasitic Tracheitis Symptoms:Chronic, dry cough unresponsive to antibiotics, inspiratory respiratory distress, anorexia, and exercise intolerance.
Treatment Symptomatic: Bronchodilators and antitussives if needed.
Causative: Ivermectin 300 mcg/kg (PO or SC) weekly in non-sensitive breeds; Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg/day (PO) or Thiabendazole 100 mg/kg/day (PO) for 20 days.
Supportive: Supportive nutrition and care during parasite clearance; limit activity to reduce tracheal irritation.

Irritant Tracheitis Symptoms:Chronic, nonproductive cough, increased tracheal sensitivity, cervical swelling (e.g., from choke chain trauma).
Treatment Symptomatic: Antitussives and corticosteroids (e.g., Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg/day PO for 5 days).
Causative: Remove environmental irritants such as smoke or fumes; discontinue choke collar use.
Supportive: Inhaled steroids; supportive care to reduce inflammation and coughing.

Tracheal Obstruction Symptoms:Acute or chronic cough (± hemoptysis), respiratory distress (acute or progressive), panting, anxiety, pawing at the face, dysphagia, halitosis, exercise intolerance.
Treatment Symptomatic: Reduce airway inflammation and anxiety.
Causative: Bronchoscopic removal of foreign bodies; laser resection or balloon dilatation for obstructive masses.
Supportive: Treat secondary infections (e.g., Nocardia, Actinomyces); oxygen therapy and anti-inflammatories as needed.

Tracheal Tumor Symptoms:Inspiratory difficulty or distress, panting, abnormal respiratory movements, exercise intolerance, increased inspiratory noises, coughing, cyanosis, syncope. Systemic signs often absent.
Treatment Symptomatic: Emergency tracheotomy in critical airway compromise.
Causative: Tumor removal via bronchoscopy or surgical resection and anastomosis; chemotherapy or radiation depending on tumor type.
Supportive: Permanent tracheostomy if resection isn't possible; supportive respiratory care during recovery.

Tracheal Trauma Symptoms:Subcutaneous emphysema, inspiratory dyspnea, tachypnea, cyanosis (occasionally).
Treatment Symptomatic: Provide oxygen-enriched environment; cage rest.
Causative: Close wounds; evacuate air with 18-gauge needle if emphysema is severe; tracheal resection and anastomosis in critical trauma.
Supportive: Monitor airway patency and prevent infection during healing.

Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia Symptoms:Chronic mucoid or mucopurulent nasal discharge, sneezing, productive cough, respiratory distress, tachypnea, dyspnea, cyanosis; onset can range from neonatal to geriatric depending on severity.
Treatment Symptomatic: Improve clearance of secretions via physiotherapy and nebulization.
Causative: Genetic condition — breeding of close relatives should be avoided.
Supportive: Long-term or lifelong broad-spectrum antibiotics; avoid cough suppressants.

Acute Bronchitis Symptoms:Dry, hacking cough; wheezing; difficulty breathing; lethargy; fever; decreased appetite; sometimes nasal discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Butorphanol 1 mg/kg PO BID for cough suppression; Theophylline 20 mg/kg PO BID; Terbutaline 3 mg PO TID or Albuterol 30 mg/kg PO BID.
Causative: Antibiotics based on culture for bacterial causes; endoscopic removal of foreign body (or thoracotomy if unsuccessful); eliminate irritants.
Supportive: Nebulization; Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO BID; supportive care and rest.

Mycotic Lung Disease Symptoms: Weight loss, fever, lymphadenopathy, cough, tachypnea, respiratory distress, bilateral mucopurulent nasal discharge, exercise intolerance, expiratory wheeze, anorexia. Pulmonary signs common in blastomycosis and coccidioidomycosis; nasal signs in cryptococcosis and aspergillosis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor respiratory status and provide oxygen as needed.
Causative: Long-term antifungal therapy based on organism (e.g., itraconazole for Blastomyces, fluconazole for Cryptococcus).
Supportive: Frequent thoracic radiographs to monitor resolution; manage systemic illness.

Cystic-Bullous Lung Disease Symptoms: Acute respiratory distress, tachypnea, pneumothorax. Often clinically silent.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy; thoracocentesis if needed.
Causative: Surgical removal of localized cysts or bullae.
Supportive: Manage underlying conditions (e.g., bronchial disease, lung flukes).

Capillaria aerophila Infection Symptoms: Usually asymptomatic; may present with mild cough similar to allergic bronchitis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care as needed.
Causative: Fenbendazole 40 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days (dogs and cats); Levamisole 8 mg/kg PO SID for 15 days (dogs); Ivermectin 400 mcg/kg PO.
Supportive: Prevent reinfection through environmental control.

Paragonimus kellicotti Infection Symptoms: Chronic cough unresponsive to treatment, pneumothorax; more common in cats. Some animals asymptomatic.
Treatment Symptomatic: Thoracocentesis; chest tube placement for pneumothorax.
Causative: Fenbendazole 40 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days (dogs and cats).
Supportive: Excellent prognosis with treatment.

Eosinophilic Pulmonary Granulomatosis (Pulmonary Infiltration with Eosinophilia) Symptoms: Anorexia, weight loss, chronic coughing, expiratory wheezes, crackles, or normal lung sounds on auscultation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Bronchodilators (dogs: Aminophylline 10 mg/kg PO TID; cats: 6 mg/kg PO BID).
Causative: Prednisolone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 2 weeks; Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 7 days.
Supportive: Inhaled corticosteroids; antibiotics if indicated.

Tumors of the Pulmonary Parenchyma Symptoms: Cough, tachypnea, respiratory distress, weight loss, anorexia, fever, lameness (due to hypertrophic pulmonary osteopathy). Radiographic findings often suggest neoplasia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive respiratory care; manage pain and inflammation.
Causative: Surgical resection (lobectomy) for solitary tumors; chemotherapy as adjunct or sole therapy based on tumor type.
Supportive: Monitor with thoracic imaging; ongoing oncologic management.

Pulmonary Contusions Symptoms: History of chest trauma, acute tachypnea, increased respiratory effort, crackles over contused area, mild hemorrhage.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy via nasal mask or oxygen cage.
Causative: Address trauma-related issues (e.g., blood loss, shock).
Supportive: Decrease physical activity; strict cage rest.

Near-Drowning Symptoms: Loss of consciousness, severe respiratory distress or arrest, hypothermia, crackles and wheezes on auscultation, possible neurological signs (e.g., cerebral edema).
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen via nasal cannula, mask, or oxygen cage; manage hypothermia.
Causative: Initiate ventilation immediately; perform cardiopulmonary or mouth-to-muzzle resuscitation.
Supportive: Positive-pressure ventilation; treat for cerebral edema if needed.

Flail Chest Symptoms: Paradoxical movement of flail segment, reluctance to move (pain), dyspnea, cyanosis, open-mouth breathing. Confirmed by radiography.
Treatment Symptomatic: Position in lateral recumbency with flail segment dependent; oxygen support.
Causative: Surgical stabilization of the flail segment using nonabsorbable sutures and external splint.
Supportive: Pain control, restricted movement, monitor respiratory status.

Pneumomediastinum Symptoms: Often asymptomatic. Subcutaneous emphysema, severe dyspnea, jugular venous distension, hypotension, tachycardia, weak pulse, pale mucous membranes, delayed capillary refill, cyanosis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Cage rest, oxygen supplementation, sedation.
Causative: Treat pneumothorax if present with thoracocentesis; suture deep cervical wounds.
Supportive: Condition resolves in 2 weeks if air leakage stops.

Mediastinal Edema and Hemorrhage Symptoms: Edema: Often asymptomatic. Hemorrhage: Pale mucous membranes, tachycardia, tachypnea, weakness, collapse.
Treatment Symptomatic: Fluid therapy and oxygen support.
Causative: Identify and treat underlying cause (e.g., trauma, coagulopathy, neoplasia).
Supportive: Blood transfusion if needed; Vitamin K in rodenticide toxicity; manage hemothorax.

Mediastinitis Symptoms: Fever, dyspnea, tachypnea, thoracic and cervical edema, dysphagia or regurgitation, coughing, thoracic pain, stridor, dysphonia, dull thoracic percussion.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesia, fluid therapy, oxygen support.
Causative: Broad-spectrum antibiotics (including anti-anaerobic); antifungals for fungal causes; surgical repair of esophageal perforation.
Supportive: Rest, long-term treatment (months if fungal), thoracostomy tube if fluid present.

Mediastinal Masses Symptoms: Inappetence, dyspnea, cough, dull thoracic auscultation, dysphagia, regurgitation, hypersalivation, polyuria, cardiac arrhythmia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilize breathing and hydration.
Causative: Chemotherapy (lymphosarcoma); surgical excision (thymoma); transthoracic aspiration (mediastinal cysts).
Supportive: Imaging-guided monitoring and supportive care based on tumor type.

Splenic Torsion Symptoms: Vomiting, inappetence, abdominal distension, weight loss, polydipsia, polyuria.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilize with fluids; monitor cardiovascular status.
Causative: Dopamine 2 mg/kg/min IV; ultrasound confirmation and surgical splenectomy.
Supportive: Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO daily; post-op care and analgesia.

Seizures Symptoms: Simple partial: Facial twitching, limb twitching, no loss of consciousness.
Complex partial: Altered consciousness, fly-biting, barking, pacing.
Generalized: Tonic-clonic jerking, hypersalivation, urination, defecation, loss of consciousness, disorientation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg PO BID or midazolam for acute control.
Causative: Phenobarbital 5 mg/kg PO/IM/IV BID; Potassium bromide 40 mg/kg PO SID (dogs only); Levetiracetam 20 mg/kg PO BID; Zonisamide 10 mg/kg PO BID; Felbamate 40 mg/kg PO BID (dogs); Gabapentin 30 mg/kg PO TID (dogs/cats).
Supportive: Long-term anticonvulsant management; avoid triggers; periodic serum drug monitoring.

Congenital Cerebellar Disorder Symptoms: Present from time of ambulation; nonprogressive signs. Spastic-hypermetric gait (cerebellar ataxia), loss of balance, intentional tremors.
Treatment Symptomatic: No definitive treatment available.
Supportive: Animals may adapt well and make suitable pets despite persistent signs.

Caudal Occipital Malformation and Syringohydromyelia Symptoms: Involuntary flank or neck scratching, hyperesthesia, proprioceptive ataxia, abnormal postural reactions, paresis, hypermetria, exercise intolerance, seizures, muscle atrophy, scoliosis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO every other day.
Causative: Surgical decompression (subtotal occipital craniectomy, dorsal laminectomy, durotomy).
Supportive: Prognosis is fair to good, depending on severity of signs.

Neuronal Abiotrophies and Dystrophies Symptoms: Spastic-hypermetric gait, loss of balance, intention tremors, absent menace response. Affected breeds include Rottweiler, German Shepherd, Domestic Shorthair cat. Generalized tremors in hypomyelinating disorders.
Treatment Symptomatic: No definitive treatment available.
Supportive: Prognosis is variable; some signs may resolve spontaneously, others persist indefinitely.

Disorders of Intermediary Metabolism Symptoms: Ascending paralysis, muscular weakness, hepatomegaly, incoordination, exercise intolerance, visual deficits.
Treatment Symptomatic: No curative therapy available.
Supportive: Prognosis is often poor for long-term survival; supportive care as needed.

Synovial Sarcoma Symptoms: Progressive lameness in a single limb, commonly in large-breed dogs. Joint effusion, periarticular swelling, limb edema.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain control and mobility support.
Causative: Limb amputation is the treatment of choice; chemotherapy has uncertain efficacy.
Supportive: Palliative care as needed if surgery is not performed.

Ivermectin Sensitivity Symptoms: Ataxia, disorientation, hypersalivation, tremors, mydriasis, seizures, coma (in severe cases). Seen in sensitive breeds like Collies and other herding dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids, seizure control, supportive care.
Causative: Avoid use of ivermectin in sensitive breeds.
Supportive: Oxygen therapy, nursing care, and monitoring of vitals.

Hyperkalemia in Dogs Symptoms: Vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, slow heart rate, collapse, limb paralysis, low urine output.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids to promote potassium excretion.
Causative: Insulin therapy for diabetic ketoacidosis; treat underlying kidney disease.
Supportive: Low-potassium diet and ongoing electrolyte monitoring.

Eosinophilic Enterocolitis Symptoms: Anorexia, weight loss, vomiting, chronic diarrhea (small/large bowel), melena or hematochezia, thickened bowel loops, ascites in severe cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Easily digestible diets (e.g., rice, potatoes); antibacterial therapy with metronidazole or tylosin.
Causative: Fenbendazole, pyrantel pamoate for parasites; immunosuppressants like prednisone, azathioprine, cyclosporine, chlorambucil.
Supportive: Long-term dietary management and regular follow-ups.

Hemangiosarcoma Symptoms: Hemoptysis, lethargy, weight loss, respiratory signs depending on location of metastasis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilization and palliative care as needed.
Causative: Chemotherapy with cisplatin, carboplatin, and levamisole.
Supportive: Monitor for bleeding and manage anemia if present.

Primary Adenocarcinoma Symptoms: Hemoptysis, persistent cough, dyspnea, anorexia, weight loss, hypertrophic osteopathy in some cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy and comfort care.
Causative: Surgical resection is preferred; chemotherapy (cisplatin, carboplatin, levamisole) often unsuccessful.
Supportive: Palliative care in unresectable cases.

Chondrosarcoma Symptoms: Hemoptysis, cough, respiratory difficulty. Often slow-growing but invasive.
Treatment Symptomatic: Cough suppressants and oxygen therapy if needed.
Causative: Chemotherapy with cisplatin, carboplatin, and levamisole.
Supportive: Imaging to monitor progression and comfort-based care.

Tracheal Tumors Symptoms: Hemoptysis, honking cough, stridor, exercise intolerance, respiratory distress.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen supplementation and corticosteroids for inflammation.
Causative: Chemotherapy with cisplatin, carboplatin, and levamisole; surgical or laser excision if feasible.
Supportive: Airway management and nutritional support.

Intestinal Lymphosarcoma Symptoms: Vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia, weight loss. Solitary mass lesions may cause obstruction. In dogs, the illness is often acute and may include hypercalcemia. No breed predisposition in cats; predisposed dog breeds include Boxers, Shar-Peis, Golden Retrievers, Dobermans, Labradors, and German Shepherds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antiemetics and nutritional support.
Causative: Surgical resection for focal lymphosarcoma. Chemotherapy with cisplatin 60 mg/m² IV every 4 weeks, carboplatin 0.12 mg/kg/m² IV every 4 weeks, and levamisole 2.2 mg/kg PO daily.
Supportive: Appetite stimulants, hydration, and monitoring for hypercalcemia.

Acral Lick Dermatitis (Lick Granuloma) Symptoms: Persistent itching, excessive licking of the legs, hair loss, raised red patches or lumps on the skin, thickened skin, open sores. Often affects males. Lesions are typically found on the front surface of one leg.
Treatment Symptomatic: Broad-spectrum antibiotics for several weeks; anti-inflammatory medications and antihistamines.
Causative: Corticosteroids, capsaicin application, dimethyl sulfoxide, surgical lesion removal, and behavioral therapy (antianxiety drugs).
Supportive: Environmental enrichment and prevention of self-trauma (e.g., E-collar).

Dietary Excess in Renal Disease Symptoms: Vomiting following excessive intake, especially in animals with renal insufficiency. May also cause nausea and anorexia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anti-nausea medications and rehydration.
Causative: Reduce dietary intake; manage underlying renal disease.
Supportive: Prescription renal diets and routine renal function monitoring.

Nasal Tumors Symptoms: Sneezing, epistaxis, nasal discharge (unilateral or bilateral), facial asymmetry, epiphora, stertor. In cats: nasal/facial masses, CNS signs possible.
Treatment Symptomatic: Nasal decongestants, anti-inflammatories, and antibiotics for secondary infections.
Causative: Surgical debulking (rhinotomy) followed by radiation therapy; brachytherapy (Iridium-192); doxorubicin and carboplatin with oral piroxicam.
Supportive: Pain management and oxygen therapy as needed.

Lymphocytic Plasmacytic Gingivostomatitis Symptoms: Fever, depression, anorexia, halitosis, excessive drooling (ptyalism), bleeding gums, chewing motions, teeth chattering, dysphagia, retching, gagging, regurgitation, nasal discharge, sneezing, head shaking, face rubbing. Inflammation and ulceration of oral mucosa, gingiva, and tongue.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain control, antiseptic oral rinses, and assisted feeding.
Causative: Cephalexin 22 mg/kg (PO/IM TID), doxycycline 5 mg/kg (PO BID), enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg (dogs SID; cats 4 mg/kg PO SID), metronidazole 10 mg/kg (PO BID then SID), ketoconazole or itraconazole 10 mg/kg (PO BID/SID), interferon-gamma 10 mg/kg (PO BID), cyclosporine 2 mg/kg (PO BID), corticosteroids.
Supportive: Regular dental hygiene, dietary modifications, and monitoring for recurrence.

Neutropenia Symptoms: May result from administration of chemotherapeutics, estrogen, or other hematotoxic agents. Also seen in ehrlichial diseases, myeloproliferative disease, myelofibrosis, myelodysplasia, and inherited cobalamin malabsorption. Often accompanied by anemia and thrombocytopenia, indicating pancytopenia and suggesting bone marrow injury.
Treatment Symptomatic: Broad-spectrum antibiotics to prevent opportunistic infections.
Causative: Lithium carbonate 11 mg/kg (BID) for 6 weeks or 25 mg/kg/day PO; human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor 5 mg/kg/day SC for 5 days; monthly cobalamin 1 mg injections.
Supportive: Monitor CBC regularly; maintain hydration and nutrition.

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Symptoms: Nonspecific signs such as anorexia, lethargy, weight loss, vomiting, diarrhea, lameness, altered mentation, intermittent fever, and petechiae. Bone marrow is the primary tumor site, with progressive lymphoblastic infiltration.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care with fluids, antiemetics, and nutritional support.
Causative: Chemotherapy with vincristine and L-asparaginase (though may result in neutropenia); broad-spectrum antibiotics; fresh whole blood transfusions.
Supportive: Prognosis is poor; survival typically under a few months. Palliative care if needed.

Eosinophilic Leukemia Symptoms: Primarily affects older cats, especially those infected with FeLV or FIV. Clinical signs include vomiting, diarrhea, peripheral lymphadenopathy, and severe anemia. Characterized by peripheral eosinophilia, eosinophilic bone marrow hyperplasia, and eosinophilic infiltration in organs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Manage anemia and gastrointestinal symptoms.
Causative: Hydroxyurea 40 mg/kg/day PO for 1 week, then every 3 days; prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID, tapered gradually. Corticosteroids used to suppress eosinophilic activity.
Supportive: Prognosis is guarded; close monitoring of CBC and organ function.

Basophilic Leukemia Symptoms: Nonspecific signs including lethargy, inappetence, fever, lumbar pain, hepatosplenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, and nonregenerative anemia. Characterized by excessive marrow basophil production, immature circulating basophils, and elevated myeloid blast cells.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care to address fever, pain, and appetite.
Causative: Hydroxyurea 25 mg/kg PO BID; may require discontinuation due to side effects (myelosuppression, pruritus, alopecia, diabetes mellitus).
Supportive: Monitor bloodwork closely; consider discontinuing or adjusting therapy if adverse effects occur.

Necrotizing Sialometaplasia / Salivary Necrosis Symptoms: Enlarged and painful salivary glands, nausea, vomiting, inappetence, dysphagia, retching, gagging, lip smacking, and ptyalism. Often associated with ischemic necrosis of salivary lobules and metaplastic proliferation of ducts.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antiemetics for nausea, pain control.
Causative: Prednisone 2 mg/kg (PO SID); Antibiotic or antiparasitic agents depending on secondary infection.
Supportive: Phenobarbital 2 mg/kg (PO BID) if neurologic signs or seizures are present.

Salivary Gland Fistula Symptoms: Continuous saliva drainage, swelling in the neck or lateral facial region. Often associated with non-healing wounds post-trauma or surgery.
Treatment Symptomatic: Manage drainage and secondary infections.
Causative: Surgical excision of the salivary gland and fistulous tract; salivary duct ligation.
Supportive: Amoxicillin/clavulanate 10 mg/kg (PO BD), Cephalexin 30 mg/kg (PO BD), Clindamycin 8 mg/kg (PO BD).

Chronic Monocytic Leukemia Symptoms: Persistent monocytosis unresponsive to antibiotics, along with splenomegaly and hepatomegaly. May show mild anemia and myelodysplasia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care as needed for organ enlargement or discomfort.
Causative: Chemotherapy and glucocorticoids have minimal effect on disease course.
Supportive: Palliative care based on clinical signs and progression.

Essential Thrombocythemia Symptoms: Lethargy, exercise intolerance, pallor, hepatosplenomegaly, GI hemorrhage, anemia. Platelet count > 1,000,000/mL.
Treatment Symptomatic: Address bleeding and anemia as needed.
Causative: In dogs: Vincristine 0.7 mg/m² (IV once), Hydroxyurea 500 mg/m² (PO daily). In cats: Nandrolone decanoate 15 mg (IM once), Melphalan 0.5 mg (PO SID for 4 days, then alternate days).
Supportive: Monitor platelet count and manage complications.

Chronic Idiopathic Myelofibrosis / Related Myeloid Disorders Symptoms: Gradual onset of lethargy, exercise intolerance, inappetence, pale mucous membranes, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, and weight loss. Blood abnormalities include anemia, poikilocytosis, and dacryocytosis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Blood transfusions for anemia, nutritional support.
Causative: Prednisolone 2 mg/kg (PO SID) for 4 weeks, then taper QOD; Nandrolone decanoate 2 mg/kg (IM weekly for 3 weeks, then once every 3 weeks); Azathioprine 2 mg/kg (QOD) if unresponsive to initial therapy.
Supportive: Long-term monitoring of CBC and clinical signs.

Von Willebrand Disease Symptoms: Intermittent mucosal bleeding. Petechiae are uncommon. Some animals appear normal until challenged by trauma, surgery, or estrus.
Treatment Symptomatic: Local control of bleeding with topical agents (e.g., methacrylate, cautery, pressure bandages).
Causative: Desmopressin acetate 1 mg/kg (SC) one hour prior to blood collection; thyroid supplementation if needed.
Supportive: Blood transfusion if significant hemorrhage occurs.

Platelet Hypo/Hyperresponsiveness Symptoms: Petechiae, ecchymoses, mucosal hemorrhages in hyporesponsive states; thrombotic events in hyperresponsive states. Bleeding typically occurs with trauma or surgery.
Treatment Symptomatic: Blood transfusion for hemorrhage; treat signs as they arise.
Causative: Discontinue suspected drugs; address underlying disease.
Supportive: Aspirin 0.5 mg/kg (PO BID) in dogs to reduce thrombotic risk where platelets are hyperreactive.

Infectious Thrombocytopenia Symptoms: Hemorrhages occur with severe thrombocytopenia. Clinical signs are usually associated with the underlying infectious agent.
Treatment Symptomatic: Fluid therapy, anti-inflammatory drugs, transfusion therapy for hemorrhage or anemia.
Causative: Antimicrobials targeted to the specific infectious organism.
Supportive: Prognosis depends on the underlying etiologic agent; monitor platelet count and infection control response.

Drug or Toxin-Induced Thrombocytopenia Symptoms: Hemorrhages, mild to moderate thrombocytopenia associated with platelet dysfunction. Anemia, weakness, lethargy, or leukopenia may occur with myelosuppressive drugs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Transfusion therapy for significant anemia or life-threatening hemorrhage.
Causative: Discontinue administration of the suspected drug or toxin.
Supportive: Immunosuppressive therapy with prednisone if thrombocytopenia persists; monitor hematologic parameters regularly.

Platelet Production Disorders Symptoms: Hemorrhage with severe thrombocytopenia or with acquired platelet dysfunction. Anemia, leukopenia, or both may occur with hypoplasia of other cell lines.
Treatment Symptomatic: Blood transfusion for severe anemia or life-threatening hemorrhage.
Causative: Treat underlying cause; discontinue suspected drug; chemotherapy for neoplasia; antimicrobials for infection.
Supportive: Immunosuppressive therapy; recombinant human IL-11 to stimulate platelet production; supportive care as needed during recovery.

Hemophilia A and B (Factor VIII and IX Deficiencies) Symptoms: Severe bleeding after trauma, spontaneous hematomas, hemarthrosis with lameness, oral bleeding, bloody diarrhea, anemia, and hypovolemia. Bleeding often seen after surgery (e.g., tail docking, dewclaw removal).
Treatment Symptomatic: Expand circulatory volume and correct anemia.
Causative: Administration of deficient coagulation factors; cryoprecipitate preferred for fibrinogen replacement.
Supportive: Gene therapy for definitive treatment of Factor VIII deficiency shows promise in dogs; monitor coagulation status and manage surgical risks carefully.

Canine Babesiosis Symptoms: Fever, anorexia, weakness, pale or congested mucous membranes, vomiting, diarrhea, ascites, edema, lymphadenopathy, and weight loss. In puppies, may present as fatal hemolytic anemia. A tick-borne disease caused by hemoprotozoa of the genus Babesia, especially B. canis and B. gibsoni, leading to erythrocyte destruction.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care including fluid therapy, antiemetics, and nutritional support. Blood and plasma transfusions in severe anemia.
Causative: Imidocarb dipropionate 5 mg/kg IM once or Diminazene aceturate 5 mg/kg IM once. For B. gibsoni, use Atovaquone 13.3 mg/kg PO TID + Azithromycin 10 mg/kg PO SID for 10 days.
Supportive: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 3 weeks to control immune-mediated hemolysis. Monitor hematocrit and clinical status throughout treatment.

Oral Malignant Melanoma Symptoms: Typically affects dogs aged 10–12 years. Clinical signs include halitosis, dysphagia, painful or difficult chewing, face rubbing, oral hemorrhage, drooling, and inappetence. Tumors are often pigmented, friable, necrotic, and bleed easily. Commonly invades local bone; most frequently reported oral tumor in dogs, especially poodles, dachshunds, and golden retrievers. Rare in cats.
Treatment Symptomatic: Supportive care for pain and nutrition.
Causative: Radical surgical excision (maxillectomy or mandibulectomy with margins over 2 cm). Radiation therapy is most effective for small tumors. Chemotherapy with Cisplatin 60 mg/m² IV or Carboplatin 300 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks.
Supportive: Prognosis is guarded to poor due to high metastatic potential. Early detection improves outcome.

Absent or Supernumerary Teeth Symptoms: May cause soft-tissue trauma or reduce oral self-cleaning. Supernumerary teeth can lead to tooth-to-tooth or tooth-to-soft-tissue contact. Plaque accumulation may result in periodontal disease. Oligodontia (missing teeth) and polyodontia (extra teeth) occur sporadically in dogs and cats. First and second premolars often absent in cats.
Treatment Symptomatic: None if asymptomatic and radiographs are normal.
Causative: Extraction required in cases of overcrowding, tooth rotation, tissue trauma, or excessive plaque retention.
Supportive: Routine oral examinations recommended to monitor dental health.

Retained Deciduous Teeth Symptoms: Oral debris, presence of both erupted primary and permanent teeth in the same location. Common in small-breed dogs but can occur in any breed or species.
Treatment Symptomatic: None in mild cases without malocclusion.
Causative: Extraction of primary teeth to prevent improper occlusion. Orthodontic correction if permanent teeth fail to align properly.
Supportive: Biannual to annual oral exams to detect and manage recurrence.

Malocclusions Symptoms: Tooth malposition, abnormal bite, crowding, or rotation. May cause soft-tissue trauma, tooth fractures, or abnormal wear. Defined by improper alignment of teeth, particularly mandibular and maxillary relationships.
Treatment Symptomatic: None if bite is functional and nontraumatic.
Causative: Extraction or crown reduction for mild cases. Orthodontic procedures tailored to the class and severity of malocclusion.
Supportive: Ongoing dental monitoring and oral hygiene are essential.

Enamel Hypoplasia or Hypocalcification Symptoms: Affected teeth show various enamel defects including opaque spots, pits, and deep indentations. Tooth fractures may occur due to weakened enamel structure. Causes include nutritional, metabolic, toxic, or traumatic insults during enamel formation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Smoothing of sharp enamel defects to reduce trauma.
Causative: Restoration of defects using composite or glass ionomer.
Supportive: Fluoride application to strengthen enamel and prevent further decay.

Attrition and Abrasion Symptoms: Abnormal tooth wear with shortened crowns and discolored occlusal surfaces. A central dark-brown dot may be visible. Pulp exposure occurs if a probe penetrates the central cavity. Attrition is physiological wear from tooth-to-tooth contact; abrasion is abnormal wear from external objects.
Treatment Symptomatic: None required if pulp is protected by tertiary dentin.
Causative: Extraction if pulp is exposed; smoothing sharp surfaces if necessary.
Supportive: Preventive care including avoidance of hard toys or inappropriate chewing behavior.

Dental Caries Symptoms: Oral pain (e.g., altered eating, excessive salivation), visible defects such as dark spots, concavities, or soft areas on teeth. Occurs occasionally in dogs, rarely in cats; associated with fermentable carbohydrates and sometimes xerostomia (e.g., Sjögren’s syndrome).
Treatment Symptomatic: Sealant application for early lesions.
Causative: Restoration with composite or glass ionomer; endodontic therapy if pulp is involved; extraction in severe cases.
Supportive: Oral hygiene maintenance and dietary management.

Resorptive Lesions (Feline) Symptoms: Often asymptomatic; when present, signs include anorexia, ptyalism, lethargy, depression, dysphagia, halitosis, and oral discomfort. Noncarious resorption of teeth due to unknown causes; possible links to vitamin D excess, occlusal stress, or odontoclastic activity.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain management and supportive feeding if needed.
Causative: Stage 1: Debridement and fluoride/sealant application. Stages 2–4: Crown amputation for type 2 lesions; root extraction for type 1 lesions.
Supportive: Regular visual and radiographic monitoring every 6–12 months.

Apical Abscess Symptoms: Fractured or mobile tooth, pain on palpation, purulent discharge near affected tooth, halitosis, localized facial swelling, reluctance to chew, inappetence, fever, lethargy. Advanced cases may show sinusitis, nasal discharge, or cutaneous draining fistula (e.g., under eye from maxillary carnassial tooth).
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain management and soft diet post-treatment.
Causative: Extraction of affected tooth and curettage of infected socket; surgical drainage of any fistulas.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum systemic antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate) and oral antiseptics.

Tooth Luxation or Avulsion Symptoms: Signs range from none to severe depending on extent of displacement. Observations may include excessive licking, head shaking, ptyalism, behavioral changes while eating, anxiety, or visible dislocation of the tooth.
Treatment Symptomatic: Soft food and pain management.
Causative: Immediate reimplantation (within 30 minutes); handle tooth by crown, avoid damaging periodontal ligament. Secure with fixation device for 4–6 weeks.
Supportive: Oral hygiene with 0.12% chlorhexidine rinse; broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., doxycycline).

Malabsorption or Malassimilation Symptoms: Chronic diarrhea (watery, soft, or greasy), weight loss, muscle wasting, poor coat quality, abnormal appetite (pica), abdominal discomfort, increased intestinal gas (borborygmus, flatulence), vomiting, melena, pale or gray feces, edema or ascites from protein loss, chylous effusion, lethargy, depression, increased bleeding tendency (vitamin K deficiency).
Treatment Symptomatic: Manage fluid/electrolyte balance and provide supportive care.
Causative: Treat underlying conditions: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (enzyme supplementation), parasitic infections (anthelmintics), bacterial overgrowth (Tylosin, Metronidazole, or Trimethoprim-sulfa).
Supportive: Nutritional support with highly digestible, ultra-low fat homemade diets; supplement with cobalamin, folic acid, thiamine, vitamin E, vitamin K1; proton pump inhibitors if gastric acid-related maldigestion suspected.

Protein-losing Enteropathy A syndrome characterized by excessive loss of plasma proteins into the gastrointestinal tract. Common causes include inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), intestinal lymphangiectasia, giardiasis, intestinal ulceration, and chronic obstructive diseases.
Symptoms:: Weight loss, chronic or intermittent diarrhea, hematochezia, vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, peripheral edema, ascites or pleural effusion, and abnormal clotting.
Treatment Symptomatic:: Parenteral nutrition for dogs unable to eat; fluid therapy for dehydration and electrolyte imbalances.
Causative:: Target the underlying condition — administer immunosuppressants (e.g., prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO BID) for IBD; antifungals (e.g., itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO BID) for histoplasmosis; fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID × 4 days for suspected parasitic causes.
Supportive:: Feed a low-fat, highly digestible diet (e.g., boiled rice, potatoes). Consider plasma transfusion (15 mL/kg IV) if albumin or coagulation protein levels are critically low. Supplement fat-soluble vitamins and monitor for thromboembolic events.

Cutaneous Drug EruptionsAdverse cutaneous reactions caused by drugs or their metabolites in sensitized animals, with certain breeds predisposed (e.g., Doberman Pinschers to sulfonamides). Lesions often resolve after withdrawal of the offending agent.
Symptoms:: Alopecia, pigmentation changes, urticaria, purpura, angioedema, erythroderma, maculopapular rash, pruritus, and erythema multiforme.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Supportive care for pruritus, pain, and secondary infection.
Causative:: Immediate discontinuation of the offending drug and chemically related compounds; substitute with a safe alternative if continued therapy is required. For severe reactions (e.g., Stevens–Johnson-like syndromes), initiate systemic immunosuppression and hospitalize for intensive supportive therapy.
Supportive:: Short courses of systemic corticosteroids for severe inflammation, antihistamines for urticaria, and close monitoring for systemic involvement. Most animals recover within 5–14 days once the trigger is removed.

Oronasal FistulaA pathologic communication between the oral and nasal cavities, most often resulting from trauma, periodontal disease, or maxillary tooth extraction. Commonly seen in small-breed dogs.
Symptoms:: Chronic rhinitis or sinusitis, sneezing, and putrid or hemorrhagic nasal discharge.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Soft food diet and restriction of chew toys for 2 weeks.
Causative:: Definitive surgical repair—single gingival flap technique if adequate gingiva is present, or a double flap technique for large or recurrent fistulae. Extraction of the associated tooth is typically necessary.
Supportive:: Broad-spectrum antibiotics for 10 days to control secondary infection.

Cold Agglutinin DiseaseA type II hypersensitivity reaction in which cold exposure triggers immune-mediated red blood cell agglutination. May be idiopathic or secondary to conditions such as lead poisoning or upper respiratory infections.
Symptoms:: Painful skin lesions including erythema, purpura, necrosis, and ulceration, primarily affecting extremities such as paws, pinnae, and tail tip. Lesions worsen with cold exposure.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Strict avoidance of cold environments to minimize lesion formation.
Causative:: Identify and treat any underlying condition contributing to disease onset.
Supportive:: Immunosuppressive therapy (e.g., corticosteroids) as needed to control immune-mediated destruction.

Mucous Membrane PemphigoidA rare, chronic autoimmune blistering disease targeting mucous membranes and mucocutaneous junctions. German Shepherds may be predisposed.
Symptoms:: Ulcers and erosions on non-traumatized skin, often with vesicles. Commonly affects the nasal planum, periorbital skin, genitalia, anus, and bulbar conjunctiva.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Manage discomfort and prevent secondary infection.
Causative:: Lifelong immunosuppressive therapy (e.g., corticosteroids, azathioprine, mycophenolate mofetil) to control autoimmune activity.
Supportive:: Monitor similarly to cutaneous lupus erythematosus, with regular ophthalmic and dermatologic evaluation.

Bullous PemphigoidA rare autoimmune blistering disorder characterized by subepidermal vesiculation, with suspected genetic predisposition.
Symptoms:: In dogs, firm vesicles rupture to form erosions and ulcers, especially on the pinnae, abdomen, and mucocutaneous areas. In cats, lesions are less common and typically present as facial erosions.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Manage pain and prevent secondary infection.
Causative:: Immunosuppressive therapy with prednisone and azathioprine(Imuran) to control autoimmune activity.
Supportive:: For mild cases, tetracycline combined with niacinamide may be beneficial.

Mucocutaneous PyodermaA chronic inflammatory condition affecting mucocutaneous junctions, frequently observed in German Shepherds and related breeds.
Symptoms:: Swelling and erythema of lip folds with crusting and entrapped hairs, progressing to erosions and fissures. Lesions may also involve periocular areas, nasal planum, nares, vulva, and philtrum. Often associated with pain, pruritus, odor, and purulent discharge.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Hair clipping and gentle cleaning with antimicrobial shampoos.
Causative:: Target bacterial infection with topical antibiotics (mupirocin or polymyxin-neomycin BID for 3 weeks) and systemic antibiotics such as clindamycin 5 mg/kg PO BID for 4 weeks or cephalexin 22 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive:: Administer corticosteroids to reduce inflammation and improve comfort.

Ulcerative Mucocutaneous PyodermaUlceration and crusting at mucocutaneous junctions such as lips and perianal region, often with halitosis and pain during eating.
Symptoms:: Halitosis, ulceration, crusting at mucocutaneous junctions, pain during eating.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Topical chlorhexidine 2% ointment BID.
Causative:: Systemic antibiotics including clindamycin 5–10 mg/kg PO BID or amoxicillin–clavulanate 12.5–20 mg/kg PO BID for 2–3 weeks.
Supportive:: In immune-mediated cases, prednisone 1 mg/kg PO SID tapered over 4–6 weeks may be indicated.

Vesicular Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus Symptoms: Erosions and ulcers with defined borders on the skin and mucous membranes. Commonly affects the groin, axillae, footpads, genitals, and mucocutaneous junctions of the eyes, mouth, and anus. Pain, secondary pyoderma, and myositis may occur.
Treatment Symptomatic: Avoid sun exposure.
Supportive: Topical corticosteroids (Betamethasone, Fluocinolone BID for 7 days, then taper; Triamcinolone or Hydrocortisone for maintenance), Pentoxifylline 15 mg/kg (TID).
Systemic: Cyclosporine for severe or unresponsive cases.

Feline Oral Eosinophilic Granuloma Complex Symptoms: Nodules or plaques on the mouth, upper lip near canine teeth, chin, ventral abdomen, thighs, axillae, footpads, neck, and dorsal trunk. Lesions may be alopecic, ulcerated, and erythematous. Chin edema and conjunctival involvement may occur.
Treatment Symptomatic: Systemic antibiotics for 3 weeks.
Supportive: Prednisolone 3 mg/kg (PO BID), Methylprednisolone acetate 4 mg/kg (IM/SC every 2 weeks), Triamcinolone 0.8 mg/kg (PO SID), Dexamethasone 0.4 mg/kg (PO SID).
Surgical: Excision of small, refractory lesions.

Pemphigus Complex Symptoms: Depigmentation of the nose, facial and auricular crusts, pustular dermatitis, and scaling. Lesions affect mucocutaneous junctions of eyelids, lips, nostrils, prepuce, vulva, anus, and also footpads, nail beds, and inguinal region. May present with fever, anorexia, and depression.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oral prednisone; Dexamethasone or Triamcinolone in cats if needed.
Supportive: Azathioprine (dogs only), Vitamin E, Chlorambucil, Cyclophosphamide + Prednisone, or Tetracycline + Niacinamide.
Advanced: Human immunoglobulin 1 g/kg (IV over 12 hours for 2 days).

Vasculitis Symptoms: Anorexia, pain, pruritus, anemia. Skin changes progress from erythema and edema to papules, petechiae, ulcers, and necrosis. Affected areas include legs, footpads, claws, pinnae, nasal planum, scrotum, tail, and face.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain management and wound care.
Causative: Identify and eliminate underlying triggers (e.g. drug, infection, vaccine).
Supportive: Immunosuppressives:
Pentoxifylline 20 mg/kg (PO TID),
Dapsone 1 mg/kg (PO TID), Sulfasalazine 30 mg/kg (PO TID),
Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg (PO SID).

Ischemic Dermatomyositis of DogsAn inherited inflammatory disorder affecting skin and muscles. Common in certain predisposed breeds such as Collies and Shetland Sheepdogs.
Symptoms:: Transient papules with erythema and vesicles that progress to ulcers, crusts, and alopecia. Lesions heal with scarring and pigmentary abnormalities. Not typically associated with pain or pruritus.
Treatment Symptomatic:: No specific topical care needed unless secondary infection occurs.
Causative:: Immunosuppressive therapy targeting underlying immune-mediated inflammation. Long-term immunomodulation may be needed to prevent relapses.
Supportive:: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days; Azathioprine(Imuran) 2 mg/kg PO SID for 2 weeks; Pentoxifylline 15 mg/kg PO TID.

Juvenile-Onset Ischemic Dermatopathy A form of ischemic dermatopathy observed in young dogs, often overlapping with inherited dermatomyositis. It may occur spontaneously without vaccine correlation and is considered immune-mediated in nature.
Symptoms:: Papules with erythema and vesicles that evolve into ulcers, crusts, and alopecia. Lesions may result in scarring and pigment changes. Pain and pruritus are typically absent.
Treatment Symptomatic:: No specific topical therapy required unless secondary infections or discomfort are present.
Causative:: Immunosuppressive therapy aimed at controlling immune-mediated vascular and dermal inflammation. Early and sustained intervention may reduce long-term skin damage.
Supportive:: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days; Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 2 weeks; Pentoxifylline 15 mg/kg PO TID.

Postrabies Vaccination PanniculitisA localized immune-mediated inflammatory reaction at the site of rabies vaccine injection, typically appearing weeks to months after vaccination.
Symptoms:: Localized alopecia and scarring at the injection site; lesions are non-painful and non-pruritic.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: No specific topical care required.
Causative:: Address underlying immune-mediated inflammation if persistent.
Supportive:: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days; Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 2 weeks; Pentoxifylline 15 mg/kg PO TID.

Severe Cutaneous Vaccine ReactionAn exaggerated immune-mediated response following rabies vaccination, with lesions resembling ischemic dermatopathy. More common in genetically predisposed animals.
Symptoms:: Generalized vesicles, crusts, alopecia, and pigmentary scarring, without pruritus or pain.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: No specific topical care required.
Causative:: Control immune-mediated inflammation and prevent further vaccine-associated flares.
Supportive:: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days; Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 2 weeks; Pentoxifylline 15 mg/kg PO TID.

Generalized Ischemic Dermatopathy (Non-Vaccine Related)A generalized ischemic skin disorder in dogs occurring independently of vaccine administration, with lesions that may mimic dermatomyositis.
Symptoms:: Erythematous papules and vesicles progressing to ulcers, crusts, alopecia, and pigmentary scarring, without pain or pruritus.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: No specific topical therapy required unless secondary infection develops.
Causative:: Immunosuppressive and vascular support therapy to control inflammation and improve skin perfusion.
Supportive:: Prednisone 2 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days; Azathioprine 2 mg/kg PO SID for 2 weeks; Pentoxifylline 15 mg/kg PO TID.

Cutaneous T-Cell Lymphoma (Mycosis Fungoides) Symptoms: Fever, erythema, depigmentation, ulceration, and nodules on the skin. Oral mucosa and footpads may ulcerate. In cats, alopecia, erythema, and scaling are often observed on the head and neck.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical nitrogen mustard (limited efficacy).
Causative: Lomustine 10 mg/kg PO every 3 weeks; multi-agent chemotherapy using prednisone, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, chlorambucil, doxorubicin, and methotrexate.
Supportive: Regular monitoring and supportive care for quality of life.

Lentigo in Mature Dogs Symptoms: Well-defined black macules primarily on the ventrum; commonly seen in aging dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: No treatment required; the condition is purely cosmetic.
Supportive: Reassure owners of its benign nature.

Lentigo Simplex in Orange Cats Symptoms: Small black spots appear on the lips and can spread to the nose, gingiva, and eyelids; lesions grow in number and size over time.
Treatment Symptomatic: No treatment indicated.
Supportive: Cosmetic condition; no medical concern.

Postinflammatory Hyperpigmentation Symptoms: Focal skin darkening after inflammation or injury. In dogs with silver or gray coats, melanotrichia may follow dermatologic insults. Seen in dermatophytosis in cats.
Treatment Causative: Treat the underlying inflammatory or infectious trigger.
Supportive: Hyperpigmentation usually resolves with the next coat shedding cycle.

Hormone-Associated Hyperpigmentation Symptoms: Generalized melanoderma and melanotrichia, often following endocrine disorders like hyperadrenocorticism, hypothyroidism, hyperestrogenism, or alopecia X.
Treatment Causative: Diagnose and treat the specific endocrine disorder.
Supportive: Pigmentation changes usually improve slowly as the endocrine issue resolves.

Nasal Depigmentation (Dudley Nose / Snow Nose) Symptoms: Progressive fading of the nasal planum color from black to light brown; often seasonal or breed-associated.
Treatment Symptomatic: No known treatment available.
Supportive: Cosmetic condition only; disqualifying in show dogs.

VitiligoAn acquired autoimmune condition characterized by selective destruction of melanocytes in the skin and hair follicles, possibly hereditary, with increased prevalence in Rottweilers, Doberman Pinschers, and Belgian Tervurens.
Symptoms:: Leukoderma (white patches) on the lips, buccal mucosa, muzzle, nasal planum, and footpads, often symmetric. Hair depigmentation (leukotrichia) may occur. No associated itching or inflammation.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: No treatment required.
Causative:: No curative therapy available.
Supportive:: Condition is purely cosmetic and does not impact general health or quality of life.

Postinflammatory HypopigmentationA non-progressive loss of pigmentation (leukoderma or leukotrichia) occurring at sites of previous trauma or inflammation, such as pyoderma, burns, or autoimmune skin diseases like lupus. No systemic signs are present.
Symptoms:: Depigmented patches at previously affected sites, typically permanent but with possible slow repigmentation over time. Lesions are not painful or pruritic.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Not usually required.
Causative:: Treat the underlying cause (e.g., infection, burn, inflammatory skin disease).
Supportive:: Apply sunscreen to protect depigmented skin from UV damage; repigmentation may occur gradually over months.

DermoidA congenital choristoma consisting of normal skin elements such as hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and epidermis located in abnormal ocular positions. Common in breeds like Dalmatians, Dobermans, and German Shepherds.
Symptoms:: Hair and gland tissue on the ocular surface causing irritation, chronic tearing, squinting (blepharospasm), conjunctivitis, and possible corneal ulceration.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: No intervention needed for small, non-irritating lesions.
Causative:: Surgical removal via wedge resection or grafting if lesions impair vision or threaten corneal integrity.
Supportive:: Postoperative topical antibiotics and lubricants to promote healing and prevent infection.

Eyelid Agenesis (Eyelid Coloboma)A congenital malformation involving partial to complete absence of the upper lateral eyelid, most commonly affecting cats. May be unilateral or bilateral and often accompanied by trichiasis from adjacent fur, causing chronic corneal irritation.
Symptoms:: Chronic ocular surface exposure with keratitis, corneal vascularization, pigment deposition, ulceration, and scarring.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Lubricating eye ointments to minimize exposure-related corneal damage.
Causative:: Surgical reconstruction using local tissue flaps, with cryoepilation or CO₂ laser ablation to remove irritating hairs.
Supportive:: Postoperative topical antibiotics and anti-inflammatories to prevent infection and reduce inflammation.

Sinus ArrhythmiaA benign variation in heart rate characterized by acceleration during inspiration and slowing during expiration. Most common in young, relaxed dogs and rare in cats. Related to fluctuations in vagal tone and generally not pathological unless associated with bradycardia or conduction disturbances.
Symptoms:: Irregular heart rhythm detectable on auscultation or ECG, usually without clinical signs; may appear with concurrent systemic illness.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: None required; it is a normal physiological variant in healthy patients.
Causative:: None indicated when confirmed to be physiological. Further investigation may be warranted only if presented with atypical features (e.g., bradycardia, conduction block).
Supportive:: If underlying systemic disease is present, address it accordingly.

Atrial Premature Contractions (APCs)Premature atrial depolarizations originating from ectopic foci in the atria, often seen in older dogs or those with underlying cardiac or systemic disease.
Symptoms:: Often subclinical. Detected as irregular rhythm, intermittent early beats, or pulse deficits. In frequent APCs, may lead to weakness, lethargy, or syncope, especially if triggers supraventricular tachycardia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Not required for isolated APCs in otherwise healthy dogs.
Causative:: Identify and treat underlying causes—such as cardiac disease, electrolyte disturbances, systemic infections, or neoplasia—before considering antiarrhythmics.
Supportive:: Periodic ECG or Holter monitoring to assess arrhythmia burden. In clinically significant or high-frequency cases, antiarrhythmic therapy (e.g. digoxin, diltiazem, atenolol) may be indicated.

Atrial Fibrillation Symptoms: Rapid heart rate (over 200 bpm), exercise intolerance, coughing, weakness, syncope, irregular heart sounds, variable pulse intensity, gallop rhythm, murmur, and harsh lung sounds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor for signs of CHF and syncope; manage underlying heart disease.
Causative: Control ventricular rate with diltiazem and digoxin; avoid atenolol in myocardial failure; pretreat with sotalol, amiodarone, ACE inhibitors to improve cardioversion success.
Supportive: Provide oxygen if needed; monitor electrolytes and renal function.

Atrial Flutter Symptoms: Rapid heart rate, usually over 300 bpm, exercise intolerance, coughing, weakness, syncope; associated with atrial enlargement.
Treatment Symptomatic: Regular monitoring of heart rate and rhythm.
Causative: Use diltiazem XR (3–4 mg/kg PO BID) or atenolol (1 mg/kg PO BID) with caution in systolic dysfunction.
Supportive: ECG monitoring and supportive care for CHF if present.

Atrial Tachycardia Symptoms: Panting, exercise intolerance, coughing, weakness, dyspnea, syncope, heart rate over 180 bpm in dogs or over 240 bpm in cats; ectopic P waves.
Treatment Symptomatic: Treat CHF symptoms if present; reduce stress.
Causative: Sotalol, amiodarone, or procainamide; calcium channel blockers, beta blockers, or digoxin if refractory.
Supportive: Monitor ECG regularly; adjust therapy based on tolerance and response.

Atrioventricular Reentrant Tachycardia Symptoms: Exercise intolerance, coughing, weakness, syncope, signs of CHF such as pulmonary edema, harsh lung sounds, and weak rapid pulses.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy for respiratory distress; monitor for syncope.
Causative: Oral diltiazem or atenolol; IV diltiazem or esmolol for acute management. Sotalol, procainamide, or amiodarone for refractory cases (do not combine sotalol with atenolol).
Supportive: Long-term ECG monitoring; treat underlying structural heart defects.

Sick Sinus Syndrome Symptoms: Exercise intolerance, lethargy, syncope. Periods of sinus arrest with inadequate escape rhythms; may be episodic and hard to observe.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor for syncopal episodes; assess quality of life.
Causative: Pacemaker placement is the treatment of choice. If supraventricular arrhythmias coexist, antiarrhythmics (diltiazem, atenolol, sotalol) may be used after pacemaker insertion.
Supportive: Ongoing ECG monitoring; cautious use of medications post-implantation.

Atrial Standstill Symptoms: Weakness, lethargy, syncope, coughing; possible abdominal distension (ascites); may have scapulohumeral muscle atrophy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Emergency stabilization for hyperkalemia-related bradycardia; supportive care.
Causative: If hyperkalemia is present, administer 0.45% saline with 5% dextrose, regular insulin (0.5 U/kg IV) with 50% dextrose, and calcium gluconate 10% IV slowly. Pacemaker implantation if atrial muscle disease.
Supportive: Frequent electrolyte monitoring; long-term pacing if indicated.

Atrioventricular Conduction AbnormalitiesProlonged or failed conduction between the atria and ventricles via the AV node.
Symptoms:: Varies by block type; may include syncope, collapse, weakness, or lethargy in higher-grade blocks.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Atropine challenge (0.04 mg/kg IV/IM/SC) to assess for vagal contribution—failure to respond suggests intrinsic conduction disease.
Causative:: Pacemaker implantation is the standard of care in symptomatic high-grade second-degree and third-degree AV block to restore AV synchrony and improve survival.
Supportive:: Avoid AV node–blocking drugs (e.g. beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, digoxin), which can exacerbate conduction delay or precipitate collapse.

Ventricular Tachycardia / Premature ContractionsVentricular arrhythmias originating from ectopic foci, posing risks of syncope and sudden death—especially in predisposed breeds like Boxers and German Shepherds.
Symptoms:: Syncope, weakness, tachypnea, sudden collapse, particularly during stress or exercise in Boxers.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Emergency stabilization and rhythm monitoring for hemodynamic compromise.
Causative:: Acute management: IV lidocaine (2–4 mg/kg IV bolus, repeat as needed), with procainamide as an alternative if lidocaine fails. Chronic therapy: Sotalol is first-line; combinations such as mexiletine + atenolol or mexiletine + sotalol have proven effective in breeds like Boxers. Amiodarone reserved for refractory cases.
Supportive:: Regular ECG or Holter monitoring and management of underlying structural or cardiomyopathic disease.

Pyloric StenosisA congenital or acquired narrowing of the pyloric canal due to smooth muscle or mucosal hypertrophy, commonly seen in Boxers, Boston Terriers, and small breed dogs.
Symptoms:: Delayed gastric emptying; vomiting several hours post-prandially; projectile or explosive vomiting; abdominal distension; weight loss.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Stabilization before surgery—IV fluids, correct electrolyte and acid–base disturbances.
Causative:: Surgical correction is definitive—pyloromyotomy or pyloroplasty to widen the pyloric canal; in severe or recurrent cases, gastroduodenostomy or gastrojejunostomy may be required.
Supportive:: Post-operative care: monitoring hydration, nutrition with easily digestible diets, and activity restriction. Prognosis is generally excellent in congenital cases.

Hypertrophic GastritisGastric mucosal thickening—focal or diffuse—with inflammatory components; focal lesions may appear polypoid and may cause obstruction or bleeding.
Symptoms:: Intermittent vomiting, mild weight loss, anorexia, or depression.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Easily digestible, low-irritant diet; mucosal protectants if erosions are present.
Causative:: H₂ blockers or PPIs may be used judiciously; prednisone can be added in cases with marked inflammation. 2
Supportive:: Prokinetic therapy if gastric emptying is delayed; surgical excision for obstructive or polypoid lesions (e.g., partial gastrectomy).

Chronic Idiopathic GastritisChronic inflammation of the gastric mucosa without an identifiable cause, possibly immune-mediated, food-responsive, or linked to genetic or bacterial antigens.
Symptoms:: Chronic vomiting, mild weight loss, variable anorexia, depression; occasional diarrhea, pica, or polyphagia; fever and bloody diarrhea are uncommon.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Diet trial with low-fat, highly digestible food and use of antiemetics such as maropitant or ondansetron.
Causative:: If signs persist—immunosuppressive therapy with prednisone (tapered) ± adjunctive agents: metronidazole, azathioprine (dogs), cyclosporine; in cats, consider chlorambucil or cyclosporine. 0
Supportive:: Use of gastroprotectants (H₂ blockers or PPIs) and prokinetics only if ulceration or delayed gastric emptying is suspected.

Autoimmune Vesiculobullous Diseases A rare group of immune-mediated dermatologic disorders in dogs and cats, including pemphigus vulgaris, bullous pemphigoid, and mucous membrane pemphigoid. These conditions involve autoantibodies directed against desmosomal or basement membrane proteins, leading to acantholysis, blister formation, and subsequent erosions/ulceration. They are often chronic, progressive, and painful, requiring lifelong management.
Symptoms: Erosions, ulcers, and crusts of the skin and mucous membranes, most commonly around the oral cavity, nares, periocular region, genitalia, and perianal area. Lesions are painful, may bleed easily, and are prone to secondary bacterial infection. Oral involvement can cause dysphagia, hypersalivation, and anorexia. Severe systemic illness may occur in advanced cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Prednisolone 2–4 mg/kg/day PO initially, then tapered to the lowest effective dose; analgesics (e.g., buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg SC/IM/IV q8–12h) for pain relief. Topical corticosteroid or tacrolimus ointment may be used on localized lesions.
Causative: Immunosuppressive therapy is the mainstay: - Dogs: Azathioprine 2 mg/kg/day PO (monitor CBC and liver enzymes). - Cats: Cyclosporine 5 mg/kg PO BID (preferred as cats poorly tolerate azathioprine). Adjunctive options: Mycophenolate mofetil 10–20 mg/kg BID PO, or cyclophosphamide in refractory cases.
Supportive: - Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., cephalexin, clindamycin) if secondary bacterial pyoderma is present. - Antiseptic skin washes (chlorhexidine-based) to reduce microbial load. - Nutritional support in cases of anorexia (assisted feeding or feeding tubes if severe oral involvement). - Regular monitoring of hematology, liver, and renal parameters during long-term immunosuppression.
Prognosis: Guarded to poor — disease often requires lifelong therapy and frequent adjustments; relapses are common. Early intervention and careful monitoring improve long-term outcomes.

Arthropod Bite Reactions Note: Local hypersensitivity reaction to insect or mite bites causing erythema, pruritus, papules, crusts, and ulcers; commonly on ears, limbs, abdomen.
Symptoms: Pruritus, erosions, crusts, alopecia; possible secondary infection.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antihistamines (Diphenhydramine 2–4 mg/kg PO TID), short-term glucocorticoids (Prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg/day PO), topical soothing agents.
Causative: Remove or prevent arthropod exposure (flea/tick preventives, environmental control).
Supportive: Antibiotics if secondary infection; cold compresses for acute swelling; monitor for systemic reactions.

Inner Ear Polyps Symptoms: Deafness, head shaking, ear scratching, and possible discharge; chronic otitis externa/media signs may be present.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anti-inflammatory drugs: prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg/day (PO); pain management.
Causative: Surgical excision (ventral bulla osteotomy in cats).
Supportive: Post-op antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5 mg/kg BID PO for 10–14 days).

Trauma-Induced Middle Ear Effusion Symptoms: Deafness, head tilt, vestibular signs, or otitis media presentation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day (PO) to reduce inflammation.
Causative: Myringotomy with fluid drainage if bulging tympanum observed.
Supportive: Antibiotics (e.g., enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg/day PO); analgesics if pain is present.

Congenital Aural Atresia Symptoms: Congenital deafness, unresponsive to auditory stimuli; no visible ear canal in some cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: None available for hearing restoration.
Causative: No curative therapy; condition is congenital. Avoid breeding affected animals.
Supportive: Use of training tools (e.g., vibration collars) and environmental modifications.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Disorders Symptoms: Female infertility, failure to cycle, prolonged anestrus; may present with systemic hormonal imbalance signs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Nutrition optimization and general wellness care.
Causative: Hormone therapy: GnRH 50 µg per dog (SC or IM); repeated weekly or biweekly.
Supportive: Regular monitoring of hormone levels and estrus cycling behavior.

Hexachlorophene Toxicity Symptoms: Head tilt, tremors, ataxia, especially in neonates exposed to antiseptics containing hexachlorophene.
Treatment Symptomatic: Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg (IV or rectal) for seizures; maintain hydration.
Causative: Immediate cessation of hexachlorophene exposure.
Supportive: IV fluids, temperature regulation, supportive nursing care.

Degenerative Neurologic Diseases Symptoms: Progressive head tilt, imbalance, ataxia, and loss of coordination; breed-related onset often juvenile.
Treatment Symptomatic: Physical rehabilitation and hydrotherapy.
Causative: No curative treatment; genetic—breeding should be avoided.
Supportive: Nutritional support and environmental safety adaptations.

Collection Error – Azoospermia Symptoms: Infertility; semen lacks visible sperm due to improper semen collection.
Treatment Symptomatic: Repeat collection under proper stimulation conditions.
Causative: Proper training of personnel; ensure full ejaculation.
Supportive: Use electroejaculation if needed under anesthesia; repeat testing.

Obstructive Azoospermia Symptoms: Infertility with normal libido but absence of sperm in semen; caused by obstruction or prostatic issues.
Treatment Symptomatic: Treat prostatitis with enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg (PO SID) or doxycycline 10 mg/kg (PO BID).
Causative: Surgical correction of obstruction if needed.
Supportive: Follow-up semen analysis and ultrasonography.

Non-Obstructive Azoospermia Symptoms: Infertility due to testicular failure or endocrine dysfunction; testicles may be small or atrophied.
Treatment Symptomatic: hCG 500 IU IM 3x/week for 3 weeks to stimulate testosterone in some cases.
Causative: Irreversible in most cases; consider castration.
Supportive: Genetic counseling; avoid breeding.

Feline Idiopathic Vestibular Disease Symptoms: Sudden head tilt, ataxia, nystagmus, usually without systemic illness; commonly self-limiting.
Treatment Symptomatic: Maropitant 1 mg/kg/day (PO or SC) for nausea; confinement to reduce injury.
Causative: Unknown etiology; typically resolves in 1–2 weeks.
Supportive: Fluids and nutrition support as needed.

Geriatric Canine Vestibular Disease Symptoms: Sudden head tilt, imbalance, nystagmus, ataxia; typically affects older dogs without systemic illness.
Treatment Symptomatic: Maropitant 1 mg/kg PO SID for nausea; meclizine 25–50 mg/dog PO SID.
Causative: Idiopathic—self-limiting condition.
Supportive: Restrict movement to prevent injury; fluid and nutritional support.

Estrogen-Secreting Tumor (Linear Preputial Dermatosis) Symptoms: Localized linear dermatoses on the prepuce, often with hyperpigmentation and scaling in intact males.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical corticosteroids (e.g., hydrocortisone 1% cream BID).
Causative: Surgical removal of Sertoli cell tumor or castration.
Supportive: Post-op care with antibiotics (e.g., cephalexin 22 mg/kg PO BID).

Linear Epidermal Nevus Symptoms: Genital dermatosis presenting as linear, raised, and hyperpigmented lesions, often congenital.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical tacrolimus 0.1% ointment SID or corticosteroids.
Causative: No known cure—developmental anomaly.
Supportive: Monitor for secondary infection; consider surgical excision if problematic.

Locomotor Nerve Disorder (Cat) Symptoms: Circling, compulsive chasing, hallucination-like behavior (e.g., chasing imaginary objects).
Treatment Symptomatic: Diazepam 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO BID for behavioral control.
Causative: Neurological assessment and imaging to identify lesions.
Supportive: Environmental management and anti-epileptics if seizures occur.

Frostbite / Solar Erythema / Trauma (Genital) Symptoms: Redness, crusting, ulceration or necrosis of genital skin; often seasonal or weather-related.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical silver sulfadiazine BID; NSAIDs (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID).
Causative: Remove exposure to cold or intense sun.
Supportive: Gentle cleansing, protective ointments (zinc oxide), and antibiotics if infected.

Caustic Chemical Ingestion Symptoms: Dysphagia, excessive salivation, gagging, oral burns, and esophageal pain.
Treatment Symptomatic: Sucralfate 0.5–1 g PO TID to coat mucosa; analgesics such as buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IM.
Causative: Prevent access to chemicals; induce emesis only if advised by toxicologist.
Supportive: IV fluids, nutritional support via feeding tube if needed.

Locomotor Nerve Disorder (Dog) Symptoms: Stereotypic behaviors like pacing, tail chasing, head bobbing, tremors, and attacking inanimate objects or food bowls.
Treatment Symptomatic: Fluoxetine 1–2 mg/kg PO SID for compulsive behaviors.
Causative: Investigate underlying CNS pathology or seizure disorders.
Supportive: Behavior modification, environmental enrichment, and seizure control medications if indicated.

Oral Cavity Disorders Symptoms: Dysphagia, pica, polyphagia, excessive licking of objects/owners, polydipsia, halitosis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Chlorhexidine oral rinse BID; sucralfate 0.5 g PO TID if ulcers present.
Causative: Treat underlying cause (e.g., dental disease, esophagitis, metabolic disorder).
Supportive: Soft diet, oral hygiene, pain management.

Prostate Tumor Symptoms: Hematuria, tenesmus, and dysuria; may occur in older intact males.
Treatment Symptomatic: Piroxicam 0.3 mg/kg PO SID for inflammation and discomfort.
Causative: Limited surgical options; chemotherapy or radiation may be attempted.
Supportive: Urinary catheterization if obstruction occurs; pain control with opioids as needed.

Uterine Cancer Symptoms: Hematuria, vaginal discharge, weight loss, anorexia; more common in older intact females.
Treatment Symptomatic: Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID for inflammation.
Causative: Surgical excision (e.g., ovariohysterectomy); chemotherapy options include doxorubicin (1 mg/kg IV every 3 weeks), carboplatin (300 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks), or cisplatin (50–60 mg/m² IV every 3 weeks).
Supportive: Monitor CBC and renal values during chemotherapy; pain management.

Fused Ossicles Symptoms: Deafness, especially conductive type; may be congenital or acquired.
Treatment Symptomatic: No specific drug; hearing aids or sound/vibration training may help.
Causative: Surgical correction in rare cases.
Supportive: Owner education and environmental adaptation.

Stenosis of Ear Canal Symptoms: Deafness, head shaking, ear discharge due to fluid accumulation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Prednisolone 0.5 mg/kg PO BID to reduce inflammation.
Causative: Canaloplasty or total ear canal ablation if severe.
Supportive: Regular ear cleaning; antibiotics for secondary infection.

Total Ear Canal Ablation (TECA) Symptoms: Iatrogenic deafness post-surgery; may improve chronic otitis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics like tramadol 4 mg/kg PO TID post-op.
Causative: Permanent outcome of TECA.
Supportive: Support with visual cues and training for deaf animals.

Presbycusis Symptoms: Age-related hearing loss in senior animals; gradual onset.
Treatment Symptomatic: No medication; training using vibration collars or visual signals.
Causative: Degenerative; no known reversal.
Supportive: Supportive environment, avoid startling; reward-based communication.

Chronic Noise Exposure Symptoms: Progressive deafness, often bilateral, in working dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: None; avoid loud environments.
Causative: Irreversible auditory damage.
Supportive: Adapt with hand signals; prevent further exposure.

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Symptoms: Serosanguinous preputial discharge, tenesmus, hematuria.
Treatment Symptomatic: Finasteride 0.1–0.5 mg/kg PO SID to reduce prostatic volume.
Causative: Castration is curative.
Supportive: Monitor urine output and inflammation.

Multiple Organ Failure Symptoms: Anuria, oliguria, systemic collapse, hypothermia.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids (e.g., lactated Ringer’s at 60 mL/kg/day); dopamine 2–5 µg/kg/min CRI for renal perfusion.
Causative: Identify and address underlying etiology (e.g., sepsis, toxins).
Supportive: ICU-level care, dialysis if indicated.

Drug-Induced Hematuria Symptoms: Blood in urine, dysuria, recent drug exposure (e.g., cyclophosphamide).
Treatment Symptomatic: Furosemide 2 mg/kg IV BID to promote diuresis.
Causative: Discontinue offending drug; Mesna (20 mg/kg IV) can bind toxic metabolites.
Supportive: Maintain hydration; monitor renal function.

Renal Pelvic Hematoma Symptoms: Hematuria, flank pain, anemia in severe cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IM for pain; rest.
Causative: Treat underlying trauma or coagulopathy.
Supportive: IV fluids, blood transfusion if necessary.

Abdominal Effusion (Ascites) Symptoms: Abdominal distension, fluid wave, dyspnea in severe cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Abdominocentesis if causing discomfort or respiratory distress.
Causative: Manage underlying condition (e.g., heart failure, neoplasia).
Supportive: Low-sodium diet, spironolactone 2 mg/kg PO BID if cardiac origin.

Abdominal Gas Accumulation (Pneumoperitoneum) Symptoms: Abdominal distension, tympany, signs of peritonitis if secondary to rupture.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain relief with methadone 0.2 mg/kg IM.
Causative: Exploratory surgery to identify source.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum IV antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin 22 mg/kg IV TID).

Hepatomegaly / Organomegaly Symptoms: Abdominal distension, lethargy, possible icterus or vomiting.
Treatment Symptomatic: Ursodeoxycholic acid 15 mg/kg PO SID if cholestatic disease suspected.
Causative: Treat specific cause (e.g., antibiotics for cholangiohepatitis, chemo for neoplasia).
Supportive: Liver support (S-adenosylmethionine 18–20 mg/kg PO SID).

NSAID-Induced GI Ulceration Symptoms: Hematemesis, melena, anorexia, abdominal pain.
Treatment Symptomatic: Omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO SID, Sucralfate 0.5 g PO TID.
Causative: Discontinue NSAIDs/corticosteroids immediately.
Supportive: IV fluids, GI protectants, monitor PCV.

Foreign Body (Stomach) Symptoms: Hematemesis, vomiting, anorexia, abdominal discomfort.
Treatment Symptomatic: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID to reduce vomiting.
Causative: Surgical or endoscopic removal of foreign object.
Supportive: Post-op antibiotics, GI protectants, pain control.

Aggressive Behavior Symptoms: Sudden aggression, disorientation, vocalization.
Treatment Symptomatic: Diazepam 0.5–1 mg/kg IV for seizures or agitation.
Causative: Address underlying hypoxia with oxygen supplementation and manage respiratory or cardiac conditions.
Supportive: Provide 100% oxygen via mask or nasal cannula; administer IV fluids (crystalloids at 60 mL/kg/day) to maintain cerebral perfusion.

Abdominal Pain Symptoms: Restlessness, vocalization, vulvar licking, visible contractions.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxytocin 2–5 IU IM or SC, repeat every 30–60 minutes if no fetal obstruction is present.
Causative: Perform C-section if fetus is obstructed or too large to pass naturally.
Supportive: Administer calcium gluconate 10% at 0.5–1 mL/kg IV slowly if hypocalcemia is suspected; IV fluids for hydration and uterine perfusion.

Joint Swelling Symptoms: Lameness, reluctance to move, possible fever.
Treatment Symptomatic: Prednisolone 1 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days to reduce inflammation.
Causative: Discontinue the suspected causative drug (e.g., trimethoprim-sulfadiazine).
Supportive: Ranitidine 2 mg/kg IV BID or omeprazole 0.7 mg/kg PO SID to prevent gastrointestinal complications.

Mucopurulent Vaginal Discharge Symptoms: Mild vaginal discharge without systemic illness, often following estrus.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitoring only; no immediate intervention required.
Causative: Physiologic diestrus discharge; treat only if pyometra is suspected.
Supportive: Educate owners to monitor for lethargy, anorexia, or foul-smelling discharge.

Serosanguinous Vaginal Discharge Symptoms: Persistent bloody discharge, licking, possible discomfort.
Treatment Symptomatic: Dexmedetomidine 5–10 µg/kg IM to facilitate vaginal examination.
Causative: Remove foreign body manually or via endoscopy.
Supportive: Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–20 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days if mucosal trauma is present.

Snoring and Dyspnea Symptoms: Gagging, stridor, exercise intolerance, especially in brachycephalic breeds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen cage therapy for respiratory distress.
Causative: Perform soft palate resection (staphylectomy) to reduce obstruction.
Supportive: Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID post-op; consider dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg IV if inflammation is significant.

Snoring Symptoms: Nasal discharge, swelling, sneezing, localized discomfort.
Treatment Symptomatic: Carprofen 4.4 mg/kg PO SID for pain and inflammation.
Causative: Lance and drain abscess under sedation; cleanse nasal cavity.
Supportive: Cephalexin 22 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days; apply warm compresses to the area.

Snoring Symptoms: Obstructed breathing, intermittent epistaxis, nasal congestion.
Treatment Symptomatic: Saline nebulization for 10–15 minutes twice daily.
Causative: Treat underlying cause (e.g., amlodipine 0.1–0.2 mg/kg PO SID if due to hypertension).
Supportive: Use humidified air and consider cautious nasal flushing under sedation if airflow remains obstructed.

Snoring, Head Tilt, Ataxia Symptoms: Stridor, incoordination, altered posture or balance.
Treatment Symptomatic: Butorphanol 0.2–0.4 mg/kg IV to reduce stress and aid in handling.
Causative: Remove the laryngeal foreign body manually or via endoscopy.
Supportive: Dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg IV to reduce airway swelling; antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin 20 mg/kg PO BID) if mucosal injury present.

Polyneuritis Symptoms: Regurgitation, dysphagia, weakness, ataxia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID; adjust based on response.
Causative: Autoimmune basis suspected—long-term immunosuppression may be needed.
Supportive: Nutritional support; suction or assisted feeding if severe dysphagia.

Acetylcholinesterase Toxicity Symptoms: Regurgitation, muscle tremors, salivation, bradycardia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Atropine sulfate 0.04 mg/kg IM or IV every 4–6 hours as needed.
Causative: Pralidoxime (2-PAM) 20 mg/kg IM or slow IV, repeat in 4–6 hours if needed.
Supportive: IV fluids to enhance excretion; monitor vitals closely.

Foreign Body (GI Tract) Symptoms: Acute abdominal pain, vomiting, anorexia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Butorphanol 0.2–0.4 mg/kg IV for pain control.
Causative: Surgical removal (enterotomy/gastrotomy).
Supportive: IV fluids (crystalloids at 60–90 mL/kg/day); broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., cefazolin 22 mg/kg IV TID).

Spleen Infection Symptoms: Acute abdominal pain, lethargy, splenomegaly.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID).
Causative: Splenectomy if abscess or torsion confirmed.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin-sulbactam 20–30 mg/kg IV BID).

Systemic Mastocytosis Symptoms: Enlarged lymph nodes, vomiting, pruritus, hypotension.
Treatment Symptomatic: H1 antihistamines (diphenhydramine 2 mg/kg IM BID).
Causative: Surgical removal of isolated masses; chemotherapy (vinblastine 2 mg/m² IV weekly) for systemic disease.
Supportive: Corticosteroids (prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO).

Penile Trauma , Urethral Trauma Symptoms: Serosanguinous preputial discharge, discomfort, licking.
Treatment Symptomatic: Sedation for examination (e.g., dexmedetomidine 5–10 µg/kg IM).
Causative: Flush and manage any trauma or laceration.
Supportive: Antibiotics (amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–20 mg/kg PO BID); analgesics if needed.

Hypothalamic Disorders Symptoms: Hypothermia, bradycardia, altered mentation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Passive rewarming (warm blankets, heat lamps).
Causative: Manage underlying CNS lesion (e.g., anti-inflammatory doses of dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg IV).
Supportive: IV fluids warmed to body temperature; monitor core temp frequently.

Corynebacterium Infection Symptoms: Enlarged lymph nodes, fever, malaise.
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs for fever and inflammation (carprofen 4.4 mg/kg PO SID).
Causative: Antibiotics (e.g., erythromycin 10–15 mg/kg PO TID).
Supportive: Supportive care, wound drainage if abscessed nodes.

Feline Poxvirus Infection Symptoms: Sneezing and nasal discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Manage respiratory signs using antihistamines or saline nebulization.
Causative: No specific antiviral; isolate infected cats to reduce spread.
Supportive: Nutritional support and hydration.

Feline Reovirus Infection Symptoms: Sneezing and nasal discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Treat secondary bacterial infections with broad-spectrum antibiotics.
Causative: No specific antiviral therapy available.
Supportive: Fluid therapy, warm environment, and assisted feeding if necessary.

Pneumonyssoides Caninum Infection Symptoms: Sneezing and nasal discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Relieve nasal obstruction and inflammation with decongestants.
Causative: Antiparasitic treatment with ivermectin 0.2–0.4 mg/kg PO or SC.
Supportive: Monitor for recurrence and secondary infection.

Toxic Icterus Symptoms: Icterus (Jaundice).
Treatment Symptomatic: Blood transfusion in severe anemia.
Causative: N-acetylcysteine 70 mg/kg IV or PO q6h for 7 doses for acetaminophen toxicity.
Supportive: S-adenosylmethionine or milk thistle for hepatic support.

HypoestrogenismAn uncommon endocrine condition usually seen in spayed female dogs, often manifesting as dermatologic changes due to reduced estrogen levels.
Symptoms:: Bilateral symmetrical alopecia, especially on flanks, abdomen, and perineal area; thinning skin and poor coat quality.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Moisturizing shampoos and topical emollients to improve skin and coat condition.
Causative:: Diethylstilbestrol 0.1–1.0 mg PO q24–72h until clinical response is observed.
Supportive:: Routine monitoring for estrogen-related side effects such as bone marrow suppression or pyometra in intact females.

HypoandrogenismA rare endocrine disorder seen in intact male dogs, characterized by insufficient androgen production affecting skin and coat condition.
Symptoms:: Alopecia (often bilateral and symmetrical), thinning hair coat, reduced libido, and possible testicular atrophy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Skin care with medicated shampoos and supportive dermatologic management.
Causative:: Testosterone cypionate 1–2 mg/kg IM every 2–3 weeks to restore androgen levels.
Supportive:: Periodic evaluation of testosterone levels and monitoring for adverse androgenic effects (e.g., prostatic hyperplasia, behavioral changes).

Sex Hormone Imbalance – Progestin ExcessAn endocrine disorder often resulting from exogenous progestin therapy or, rarely, endogenous hormone-secreting tumors. Seen in both dogs and cats.
Symptoms:: Symmetrical alopecia (especially on flanks and trunk), hyperpigmentation, comedone formation, and possible mammary gland hyperplasia. May predispose to pyometra in intact females.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Topical or systemic antibiotics for secondary skin infections; medicated shampoos for seborrhea.
Causative:: Discontinue exogenous hormone therapy. If endogenous source suspected, further diagnostics (ultrasound, endocrine testing) required.
Supportive:: Regular monitoring of endocrine function, liver enzymes, and reproductive status; spaying may be considered in intact females to prevent recurrence.
Specific:: Consider cabergoline 5 µg/kg PO SID for 5–10 days to reduce prolactin-mediated effects if mammary hyperplasia present.

Canine Adenovirus InfectionViral infection caused by Canine Adenovirus type 1 (CAV-1), affecting liver, eyes, kidneys, and reproductive system; more common in unvaccinated young dogs.
Symptoms:: Blindness, abortion, uveitis, keratouveitis, lethargy, fever, conjunctivitis, corneal edema (“blue eye”), and hepatic involvement.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Topical or systemic anti-inflammatory therapy for ocular inflammation; treat secondary bacterial infections if present.
Causative:: No specific antiviral therapy; prevention via vaccination is crucial (CAV-1 or CAV-2 vaccines).
Supportive:: Rest, fluid therapy for dehydration, nutritional support, monitor liver function and ocular health; hospitalization may be needed in severe systemic cases.
Prognosis:: Good with supportive care in mild cases; severe systemic involvement can be fatal.

Cabergoline-Induced AbortionPregnancy loss caused by dopamine agonist therapy; cabergoline inhibits prolactin, leading to luteal regression.
Symptoms:: Abortion, vaginal bleeding, lethargy, anorexia.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Monitor for uterine discharge, bleeding, and signs of infection.
Causative:: Discontinue cabergoline immediately.
Supportive:: IV fluids for hydration, analgesia if needed, antibiotics if secondary uterine infection occurs, monitor vital signs and hematology.
Prognosis:: Generally good; fertility may return in future cycles once medication is discontinued.

Corticosteroid-Induced AbortionPregnancy loss resulting from high doses or prolonged corticosteroid therapy, especially in early gestation.
Symptoms:: Abortion, vaginal discharge, lethargy, anorexia, possible secondary infection.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Pain management with opioids or NSAIDs (if not contraindicated), observation for uterine complications.
Causative:: Discontinue corticosteroids; taper if used chronically to prevent Addisonian crisis.
Supportive:: Provide hydration, monitor for infection, maintain optimal nutrition.
Prognosis:: Favorable if no secondary infection or uterine damage occurs.

Prostaglandin-Induced AbortionPregnancy termination caused by exogenous prostaglandins (e.g., cloprostenol, dinoprost) used for luteolysis or reproductive management.
Symptoms:: Abortion, vaginal bleeding, uterine cramping, lethargy, mild fever.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Anti-emetics for nausea, analgesics for uterine discomfort.
Causative:: Withhold prostaglandin therapy.
Supportive:: IV fluids, monitor vital signs, uterine involution, and hematology; antibiotics if secondary infection suspected.
Prognosis:: Generally good; fertility may be preserved for subsequent estrus cycles.

DehydrationDeficiency of total body water due to vomiting, diarrhea, inadequate intake, or fluid loss from burns or renal disease.
Symptoms:: Oliguria, anuria, dry mucous membranes, lethargy, tachycardia, weak pulses, hypotension.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Monitor urine output, mental status, and mucous membrane color.
Causative:: Correct underlying cause; isotonic fluids (Lactated Ringer’s or 0.9% NaCl) 60–90 mL/kg/day IV, adjusted for severity.
Supportive:: Electrolyte monitoring (Na, K, Cl), renal function tests, gradual correction of deficits to avoid fluid overload.
Prognosis:: Good with prompt and adequate fluid therapy; severe or prolonged dehydration may result in renal failure or shock.

Eosinophilic Plaque (Cat)Hypersensitivity-mediated lesion, often associated with flea allergy dermatitis, food allergy, or insect bites; typically affects young to middle-aged cats.
Symptoms:: Well-demarcated, raised, erythematous plaques, often erosive or ulcerated; intense pruritus; may involve abdomen, thighs, or inguinal region.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Systemic anti-inflammatory therapy with prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID; topical corticosteroids may be adjunctive.
Causative:: Identify and remove underlying allergen (flea control, hypoallergenic diet, environmental modification).
Supportive:: Regular monitoring of lesions, prevent self-trauma with E-collar, supportive wound care, antihistamines for pruritus.
Prognosis:: Good if underlying cause controlled; recurrent lesions possible if allergen exposure persists.

Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis / Erythema Multiforme (Cat) Rare, life-threatening mucocutaneous reaction, usually secondary to drug hypersensitivity (antibiotics, NSAIDs, anticonvulsants) or infections. Immune-mediated keratinocyte apoptosis leads to widespread epidermal necrosis.
Symptoms: Acute onset of painful erosions, ulcers, crusts on skin and mucous membranes (oral, ocular, genital); fever, lethargy, anorexia; may progress to septicemia if untreated.
Treatment Symptomatic: Immediate discontinuation of causative drug; wound care similar to burn patients (sterile dressings, silver sulfadiazine); analgesia (Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg SC/IM/IV q8–12h).
Causative: Identify and withdraw triggering drug or treat underlying infection.
Supportive: Aggressive IV fluids to correct dehydration; nutritional support via feeding tube if anorexic; broad-spectrum antibiotics only if secondary bacterial infection suspected; immunosuppressive therapy (cyclosporine or corticosteroids) in selected severe cases.
Prognosis: Guarded to poor; mortality high without rapid intervention, survivors may develop chronic scarring or ocular sequelae.

Arthropod Bites (Cat) Localized or systemic inflammatory reaction following bites from fleas, ticks, mites, mosquitoes, or spiders. Hypersensitivity (especially flea allergy dermatitis) is common trigger.
Symptoms: Pruritus, erythema, papules, erosions, ulcers on skin and mucous membranes; alopecia due to self-trauma; secondary bacterial or yeast infections possible.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical corticosteroids (Hydrocortisone cream), systemic antihistamines (Chlorpheniramine 2–4 mg/cat PO BID), or short tapering course of prednisolone for severe reactions.
Causative: Ectoparasite control with products like Fipronil, Selamectin, Fluralaner, or Imidacloprid; environmental treatment to eliminate fleas and mites.
Supportive: Monitor for signs of secondary bacterial infection (pyoderma); treat with systemic antibiotics if needed; use E-collar to prevent self-trauma.
Prognosis: Excellent with parasite elimination and anti-inflammatory treatment; recurrence likely if ectoparasite exposure persists.

Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO) Exposure DMSO is a solvent with anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties sometimes used topically in veterinary medicine. It is rapidly absorbed through skin and mucous membranes and excreted via lungs, causing characteristic odor.
Symptoms: Halitosis with “garlic-like” or oyster odor; local irritation or erythema at application site; systemic signs (vomiting, diarrhea, hemolysis, CNS depression) possible with excessive exposure.
Treatment Symptomatic: Discontinue DMSO immediately; rinse mouth and skin with clean water; provide antiemetics if vomiting occurs.
Causative: Prevent further exposure; avoid accidental ingestion or inhalation.
Supportive: Observe for systemic toxicity (GI upset, hemolysis, neurological depression); provide IV fluids to enhance excretion; monitor hematology and liver/kidney values in suspected overdoses.
Prognosis: Good with mild exposure; prognosis may worsen if large systemic absorption occurs, though severe toxicosis is uncommon.

Copper Deficiency Copper is an essential trace mineral involved in collagen formation, hemoglobin synthesis, and nervous system function. Deficiency is rare in pets but may occur with imbalanced homemade diets or excessive zinc/iron intake (which interferes with copper absorption).
Symptoms: Progressive multiple joint or limb lameness in adults, poor bone development in young animals, anemia (microcytic, hypochromic), depigmentation of coat, poor wound healing, and in severe cases, neurological deficits (ataxia, weakness).
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs for joint pain, e.g., Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID, with GI protection (omeprazole or sucralfate) if needed.
Causative: Copper supplementation — Copper gluconate 0.1 mg/kg PO SID or copper sulfate supplementation under veterinary supervision.
Supportive: Balanced diet correction; long-term monitoring of copper, zinc, and iron to avoid secondary deficiencies or toxicity; periodic CBC to assess anemia response.
Prognosis: Good if corrected early; chronic skeletal or neurological damage may persist if deficiency is prolonged.

Uremic Encephalopathy Neurological complication of advanced kidney failure due to accumulation of uremic toxins affecting the brain. Seen in chronic kidney disease (CKD) or acute renal failure.
Symptoms: Early signs include lethargy, disorientation, ataxia, tremors; advanced stages cause seizures, stupor, and coma. Often accompanied by halitosis, oral ulcers, anorexia, vomiting, and oliguria/anuria.
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids (Lactated Ringer’s Solution or 0.9% NaCl, 60–90 mL/kg/day adjusted to hydration status) to dilute toxins and correct dehydration.
Causative: Long-term management of CKD with renal diet (restricted protein, phosphorus binders, omega-3 fatty acids); ACE inhibitors or amlodipine for hypertension; erythropoietin-stimulating agents for anemia.
Supportive: Hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis in severe cases; electrolyte monitoring (especially potassium and calcium); antiemetics and appetite stimulants.
Prognosis: Guarded — improvement possible if addressed early, but advanced cases with coma carry poor prognosis without dialysis.

Protozoal Myositis Inflammatory muscle disease caused by protozoa (commonly Toxoplasma gondii or Neospora caninum), leading to muscle necrosis and weakness.
Symptoms: Progressive lameness, stiffness, pain on palpation of muscles, atrophy, and in severe cases, neurological deficits (paralysis, difficulty swallowing with Neospora). Puppies and immunocompromised animals are more susceptible.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain control with NSAIDs (Carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID) or gabapentin for neuropathic pain.
Causative: Antiprotozoal therapy — Clindamycin 10–12 mg/kg PO BID × 2–4 weeks; trimethoprim-sulfonamide plus pyrimethamine may be alternatives.
Supportive: Restricted activity during acute phase; physiotherapy during recovery to restore muscle strength; nutritional support with high-quality protein diet.
Prognosis: Fair to guarded — response to clindamycin may be good in early cases, but severe or chronic infections (especially with CNS involvement) may leave permanent deficits.

Heartworm-Related Caval Syndrome Severe manifestation of heartworm disease (Dirofilaria immitis) in dogs where a heavy worm burden obstructs blood flow in the right atrium and vena cava, leading to hemolysis, right-sided heart failure, and cardiogenic shock.
Symptoms: Acute weakness, exercise intolerance, pale or icteric mucous membranes, abdominal distension from ascites, fluid in abdominal cavity (transudate), jugular venous distension, tachycardia, hemoglobinuria (red/brown urine). Without intervention, rapid deterioration to death is common.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilize with oxygen therapy; diuretics (Furosemide 2–4 mg/kg IV SID–BID) to manage ascites; corticosteroids (e.g., Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID) to reduce inflammation.
Causative: Emergency surgical extraction of adult heartworms via jugular venotomy using specialized forceps or retrieval devices; adulticidal therapy (melarsomine) can follow once the patient is stabilized.
Supportive: IV fluids to maintain perfusion but avoid volume overload; strict cage rest; analgesia; blood transfusion if severe hemolysis/anemia present. Post-op: monitor for pulmonary thromboembolism.
Prognosis: Guarded to poor; prognosis improves significantly if worms are successfully extracted before irreversible cardiovascular collapse occurs.

Bacterial Furunculosis Deep bacterial infection of the hair follicle and surrounding dermis, often secondary to trauma, excessive licking, allergic dermatitis, or underlying endocrine disease. Frequently seen on pressure points, interdigital spaces, or genital skin.
Symptoms: Painful nodules or pustules on the genital skin, swelling, erythema, serous or purulent discharge, crusting, malodor, and intense licking or scratching of the area. Severe cases may progress to draining tracts, cellulitis, or systemic illness.
Treatment Symptomatic: Warm compresses to promote drainage; cleansing with chlorhexidine (2–4% solution); topical mupirocin or fusidic acid for localized lesions.
Causative: Systemic antibiotics such as Cephalexin 22–30 mg/kg PO BID for 10–14 days (extend up to 4–6 weeks in chronic cases); culture and sensitivity recommended for recurrent or resistant infections.
Supportive: Prevent self-trauma with an E-collar; keep area dry and clean; address predisposing conditions (e.g., flea allergy dermatitis, hypothyroidism); consider pain control with NSAIDs if discomfort is significant.
Prognosis: Excellent with appropriate therapy, though recurrence is common if underlying cause is not managed.

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Infection Symptoms:shifting-leg lameness, heart murmur, abscesses. Erythematous, scaly, or crusted lesions in the genital region, possibly accompanied by fever, lethargy, and decreased appetite in systemic cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical antiseptic wash and inflammation control.
Causative: Penicillin G (22,000–44,000 IU/kg IM SID) or ampicillin for 7–10 days.
Supportive: Avoid contact with infected animals; isolate and monitor.

Foreign Body in Urethra Symptoms: Mucopurulent or blood-tinged discharge from the prepuce, dysuria, excessive licking of the genital area, and signs of discomfort during urination.
Treatment Symptomatic: Lavage preputial area with antiseptic solution.
Causative: Urethroscopy and removal of foreign object.
Supportive: Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID).

Hemorrhagic Diathesis Symptoms: Serosanguinous preputial discharge, spontaneous bleeding, bruising, prolonged clotting times, and pale mucous membranes.
Treatment Symptomatic: Blood transfusion if severe bleeding occurs.
Causative: Identify and treat underlying coagulopathy (e.g., Vitamin K1 2.5 mg/kg PO SID if rodenticide suspected).
Supportive: Minimize trauma and monitor coagulation profile.

Foreign Body in Urethra Symptoms: Straining to urinate, blood-streaked urine or discharge, painful abdomen, and frequent unsuccessful attempts to urinate.
Treatment Symptomatic: Local antiseptic flushing and pain management (e.g., Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID).
Causative: Remove foreign object via catheterization or endoscopy.
Supportive: Antibiotic therapy post-removal to prevent infection.

Herbicide Toxicity Symptoms: Sudden onset of weakness, partial or complete paralysis of limbs, drooling, tremors, and in severe cases, respiratory compromise.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilize patient, provide IV fluids and activated charcoal if ingestion recent.
Causative: No specific antidote; discontinue exposure and support detoxification.
Supportive: Physical therapy, corticosteroids (e.g., Prednisone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID) if inflammation suspected.

Severe Forebrain Lesion Symptoms: Paresis and paralysis, head pressing, circling, altered mentation, and visual deficits.
Treatment Symptomatic: Mannitol 1–2 g/kg IV over 20–30 minutes to reduce intracranial pressure.
Causative: Identify and treat underlying cause (e.g., neoplasia, trauma, or infection).
Supportive: Maintain hydration with IV fluids and provide nursing care to prevent pressure sores.

Hair Retained in Periodontal Pockets Symptoms: Halitosis, gingival inflammation, discomfort when chewing, and visible hair embedded in gum tissue.
Treatment Symptomatic: Chlorhexidine oral rinse or gel applied BID to reduce bacterial load.
Causative: Dental scaling and irrigation to remove trapped hair and plaque.
Supportive: Amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID for 5–7 days if secondary infection suspected.

Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (COPD) Symptoms: Dyspnea, chronic coughing, exercise intolerance, and prolonged expiration phase.
Treatment Symptomatic: Bronchodilators such as Theophylline 10–20 mg/kg PO BID.
Causative: Avoid environmental irritants (e.g., smoke, dust); corticosteroids like Prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID may be used.
Supportive: Nebulization therapy and weight management to reduce respiratory effort.

Congenital Porphyria Symptoms: Icterus (jaundice), red or brown discoloration of teeth and bones, photosensitivity, and anemia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Hepatoprotective agents such as S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) 18–20 mg/kg PO SID.
Causative: No specific cure; avoid triggers like sunlight and certain drugs.
Supportive: Provide antioxidant support (e.g., Vitamin E 10 IU/kg PO SID); ensure a low-stress environment.

Snake Bite, Brown Recluse Spider Bite, Bee Venoms Symptoms: Icterus (jaundice), hemolysis, weakness, vomiting, localized swelling, and necrosis at the bite site.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antihistamines (Diphenhydramine 2–4 mg/kg IM or PO TID); IV fluids for hydration and support.
Causative: Antivenom if available (for snake bite); wound debridement for spider or bee envenomation.
Supportive: Corticosteroids (e.g., Dexamethasone 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IV SID) and analgesia (e.g., Tramadol 2–4 mg/kg PO BID).

Uraemia Symptoms: Trembling, shivering, lethargy, vomiting, oral ulcers, and uremic breath odor.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anti-emetics such as Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID; IV fluids (LRS or 0.9% NaCl) for diuresis.
Causative: Address underlying renal failure; dialysis in severe cases.
Supportive: Phosphate binders (Aluminum hydroxide 30–60 mg/kg PO BID); renal diet.

Cerebellar Disease Symptoms: Trembling, ataxia, wide-based stance, hypermetria, intention tremors.
Treatment Symptomatic: Diazepam 0.2–0.5 mg/kg IV in acute episodes.
Causative: If infectious, use appropriate antimicrobials; if neoplastic, consider surgery or chemotherapy.
Supportive: Physiotherapy and assisted mobility; maintain safe environment.

CNS Inflammatory Disease Symptoms: Trembling, seizures, behavior change, shivering, ataxia, fever.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antipyretics like Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID; anticonvulsants as needed.
Causative: Immunosuppressants (e.g., Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO BID) for autoimmune causes; antimicrobials for infectious causes.
Supportive: Nutritional support, fluid therapy, and environmental control.

Cerebrospinal Hypomyelinogenesis and Dysmyelinogenesis Symptoms: Persistent trembling, poor coordination, spasticity, shivering from young age.
Treatment Symptomatic: Muscle relaxants (Methocarbamol 20–30 mg/kg PO TID).
Causative: Genetic; no curative treatment.
Supportive: Physical therapy and nursing care to prevent secondary complications.

Neuroaxonal Dystrophy (Dog) Symptoms: Trembling, progressive ataxia, proprioceptive deficits, shivering.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain control (e.g., Gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO BID).
Causative: Inherited neurodegenerative condition; no specific treatment.
Supportive: Supportive care with assisted mobility and environmental adaptation.

Pick Disease (Cat) Symptoms: Behavioral changes, trembling, progressive neurological decline, loss of learned behaviors.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antioxidants like Vitamin E (10 IU/kg PO SID) to slow progression.
Causative: Genetic; no curative treatment.
Supportive: Environmental enrichment, behavioral management, and nutritional support.

Electrolyte Abnormalities Symptoms: Ataxia, muscle weakness, confusion, seizures (depending on the electrolyte involved).
Treatment Symptomatic: IV fluids with balanced electrolytes (e.g., NaCl 0.9% or LRS).
Causative: Correct underlying imbalance (e.g., Potassium chloride 0.5 mEq/kg/hr IV for hypokalemia).
Supportive: Monitor serum electrolytes every 12–24 hours until stable.

Spongiform Encephalopathy Symptoms: Trembling, behavioral abnormalities, ataxia, progressive neurologic signs.
Treatment Symptomatic: No effective symptomatic treatment available.
Causative: Degenerative; no known cure.
Supportive: Palliative care and humane euthanasia when quality of life declines.

Reduced Environmental Temperature Symptoms: Trembling, shivering, hypothermia, lethargy, bradycardia.
Treatment Symptomatic: External warming (e.g., warm blankets, heat pads).
Causative: Relocate to a warm environment; avoid further cold exposure.
Supportive: Warm IV fluids (e.g., LRS) and monitor body temperature until normalized.

Uraemic Encephalopathy Symptoms: Ataxia, tremors, altered mentation, seizures, and vomiting.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anticonvulsants like Levetiracetam 20 mg/kg PO TID if seizures occur.
Causative: Address renal dysfunction; initiate dialysis in critical cases.
Supportive: Provide GI support, phosphate binders, and fluid therapy as needed.

Epidermoid Cyst Symptoms: Ataxia, localized swelling, discomfort, possible pressure on adjacent nervous tissue.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anti-inflammatory drugs such as Prednisolone 1 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days.
Causative: Surgical excision of the cyst under general anesthesia.
Supportive: Antibiotic coverage (e.g., Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid 12.5–25 mg/kg PO BID) post-surgery.

Glucocorticoid Therapy Side Effects Symptoms: Panting, polydipsia, polyuria, muscle weakness.
Treatment Symptomatic: Reduce glucocorticoid dose gradually (consult prescribing protocol).
Causative: Tapering of Prednisolone by 25% weekly under monitoring.
Supportive: Supportive care including hydration, GI protection (Omeprazole 0.7 mg/kg PO SID).

Feline Spongiform Encephalopathy Symptoms: Ataxia, behavioral changes, aggression, startle response, muscle tremors.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anticonvulsants like Phenobarbital 2–3 mg/kg PO BID if seizures occur.
Causative: Degenerative condition—no curative therapy available.
Supportive: Palliative care and environmental modification.

Parasite Migration in Liver Symptoms: Icterus (jaundice), lethargy, poor appetite, abdominal pain.
Treatment Symptomatic: Hepatoprotective agents (S-Adenosylmethionine 20 mg/kg PO SID).
Causative: Antiparasitic therapy such as Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID × 5 days.
Supportive: IV fluids, nutritional support.

Lymphocytic Labyrinthitis Symptoms: Ataxia, head tilt, loss of balance, vomiting, circling.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antiemetic like Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID.
Causative: Corticosteroids (Prednisolone 1 mg/kg PO BID for 5–7 days).
Supportive: Quiet environment, assisted feeding, hydration.

Hepatic Abscess Symptoms: Acute abdominal pain, fever, lethargy, vomiting, anorexia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Pain relief using Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV TID.
Causative: Broad-spectrum antibiotics like Cefotaxime 30–50 mg/kg IV TID or Clindamycin 11 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive: IV fluid therapy, surgical drainage if indicated.

Hepatic Trauma or Rupture Symptoms: Acute abdominal pain, hypovolemic shock, pallor, abdominal distension.
Treatment Symptomatic: Fluid resuscitation with crystalloids (LRS or NaCl 20 ml/kg IV bolus).
Causative: Surgical repair and ligation of bleeding vessels if needed.
Supportive: Analgesia with Methadone 0.2–0.5 mg/kg IV QID; monitor PCV and coagulation.

Splenic Rupture Symptoms: Acute abdominal pain, collapse, anemia, abdominal effusion, tachycardia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Emergency stabilization with IV fluids (shock dose 90 ml/kg/hr in dogs, 60 ml/kg/hr in cats).
Causative: Splenectomy under general anesthesia.
Supportive: Blood transfusion if PCV under 20%; monitor vitals continuously.

Corpus Luteum Failure Symptoms: Female infertility, short estrus interval. Due to insufficient progesterone production leading to early embryonic loss.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor reproductive cycle.
Causative: Progesterone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID starting post-ovulation until day 50 of gestation.
Supportive: Nutritional support and regular progesterone testing.

Exogenous Hormonal Drug Use Symptoms: Female infertility, short estrus interval. Caused by hormonal imbalance due to steroid or hormone use.
Treatment Symptomatic: Discontinue exogenous hormonal/steroidal drugs.
Causative: Allow hormonal axis reset over 4–6 weeks.
Supportive: S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) 20 mg/kg PO SID for hepatic support.

Exposure Keratitis Symptoms: Blindness. Results from incomplete eyelid closure causing corneal drying and damage.
Treatment Symptomatic: Carboxymethylcellulose ophthalmic drops 1–2 drops TID.
Causative: Correct eyelid abnormalities (surgical intervention).
Supportive: Ciprofloxacin 0.3% ophthalmic solution 1 drop BID.

Superficial Keratitis (Pannus) Symptoms: Blindness. Chronic immune-mediated inflammation of the cornea, common in German Shepherds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Cyclosporine 0.2% ointment BID to reduce corneal inflammation.
Causative: Dexamethasone ophthalmic drops 1 drop BID.
Supportive: UV light protection (e.g., canine goggles).

Corneal Melanosis due to Lid Disorders Symptoms: Blindness. Occurs from chronic irritation caused by entropion, ectropion, or facial nerve paralysis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Cyclosporine 0.2% ointment BID, artificial tears TID.
Causative: Surgical correction of lid abnormality if present.
Supportive: Lubrication and anti-inflammatory support.

Cellular Infiltrate (Bacterial, Viral, Fungal) Symptoms: Blindness. Infectious keratitis leading to corneal ulceration and opacity; vision loss if untreated.
Treatment Symptomatic: Atropine 1% ophthalmic drops 1 drop BID for pain relief.
Causative: – Bacterial: Ofloxacin 0.3% 1 drop QID
– Fungal: Natamycin 5% 1 drop QID
– Viral (FHV-1): Famciclovir 90 mg/kg PO TID
Supportive: Ocular cleaning and close monitoring.

Carbon Monoxide Intoxication Symptoms: Generalized hyperemia. Can include bright red mucous membranes, tachypnea, ataxia, and collapse.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy via mask or chamber (100% O₂).
Causative: Remove source of CO exposure.
Supportive: Fluids for perfusion; monitor neurologic status and oxygenation.

Allergen Exposure (Localized Hyperemia) Symptoms: Localized hyperemia. Redness and swelling at contact site, commonly due to insect bites or allergens.
Treatment Symptomatic: Diphenhydramine 2 mg/kg PO TID.
Causative: Remove or avoid allergen source.
Supportive: Cold compresses and topical corticosteroids for localized inflammation.

External Constriction Injury Symptoms: Localized hyperemia. Swelling, pain, and impaired circulation caused by tight collars, bands, or wraps.
Treatment Symptomatic: Immediate removal of constricting item.
Causative: Evaluate for necrosis or vascular damage; debride if necessary.
Supportive: NSAIDs (e.g., meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID) for pain and inflammation.

Sudden Acquired Retinal Degeneration Syndrome (SARDS) Symptoms: Blindness. Acute bilateral vision loss with normal appearing fundus; often associated with PU/PD and weight gain.
Treatment Symptomatic: No effective therapy available.
Causative: Etiology unclear; immune-mediated hypothesis.
Supportive: Environmental modifications and patient adaptation training.

Mucosal Trauma (Foreign Body or Pelvic Fractures) Symptoms: Hematochezia. Bright red blood in stool due to rectal trauma, foreign object irritation, or pelvic fracture complications.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stool softeners (e.g., lactulose 0.5 ml/kg PO BID).
Causative: Remove or manage underlying injury (surgical or conservative).
Supportive: Analgesia (e.g., buprenorphine 0.02 mg/kg IV TID) and hydration support.

Iliocecal Intussusception Symptoms: Hematochezia. May also include vomiting, lethargy, abdominal pain, and palpable mass in abdomen.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilization with IV fluids (LRS 20 ml/kg IV bolus).
Causative: Surgical correction (manual reduction or resection/anastomosis).
Supportive: Post-op antibiotics (e.g., cefazolin 22 mg/kg IV TID) and pain control.

Canine Geriatric Vestibular Syndrome Symptoms: Sudden onset head tilt, nystagmus, ataxia, circling, nausea, and collapse involving cranial nerve dysfunction, typically in older dogs. Often idiopathic and non-progressive.
Treatment Symptomatic: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID for nausea; Meclizine 12.5–25 mg/dog PO SID.
Causative: No known cure; condition is self-limiting in most cases.
Supportive: IV fluids for dehydration, assist with mobility, quiet/dark environment.

Geriatric ConditionsAge-related physiological decline affecting multiple systems; common in cats over 7 years, small dogs over 9 years, medium-large dogs over 7 years, and giant breeds over 5 years.
Symptoms: May include female infertility, irregular or absent estrus, shortened estrus cycles, dysphagia, ptyalism, halitosis, oral disease, reduced cardiac output, endocrine imbalances, and degenerative diseases (e.g., myxomatous valve disease, osteoarthritis).
TreatmentSymptomatic: Address specific clinical signs—cardiac support (e.g., pimobendan 0.25–0.3 mg/kg PO BID), analgesia for arthritis (NSAIDs or adjuncts), appetite stimulants (mirtazapine or capromorelin).
Causative: Manage identified conditions individually (e.g., hypothyroidism—levothyroxine 0.02 mg/kg PO BID; Chronic kidney disease (CKD)—renal diet, phosphate binders).
Supportive: Implement a geriatric care plan—senior diet, dental cleaning, routine health checks (CBC, biochemistry, urinalysis, BP, thyroid), weight monitoring, and environmental modifications for mobility support.
Specific: Prioritize the most clinically significant disease processes and assess quality of life at each visit to guide ongoing care. ([msdvetmanual.com](https://www.msdvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition/geriatrics-in-small-animals/geriatrics-in-small-animals?utm_source=chatgpt.com), [dvm360.com](https://www.dvm360.com/view/how-to-give-your-senior-patients-their-best-life?utm_source=chatgpt.com))

Exogenous EstrogensHormonal imbalance due to accidental exposure to estrogenic products (e.g., topical creams, supplements, human HRT).
Symptoms: Female infertility, persistent estrus behavior, vulvar swelling, mammary gland enlargement; prolonged exposure can cause bone marrow suppression.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Immediately eliminate the estrogen source; bathe animals exposed to topical preparations.
Causative: Treat complications—bone marrow suppression may require antibiotics, blood transfusion, or hematopoietic stimulants (e.g., recombinant human erythropoietin) under specialist guidance.
Supportive: Monitor estrogen levels, CBC, and organ function until normalized; provide hepatoprotectants if hepatic stress suspected.
Specific: In severe toxicity, supportive care in hospital with fluid therapy, nutritional support, and barrier methods to prevent further dermal absorption. ([msdvetmanual.com](https://www.msdvetmanual.com/toxicology/hormone-toxicosis/estrogen-toxicosis?utm_source=chatgpt.com), [vin.com](https://www.vin.com/apputil/content/defaultadv1.aspx?id=3864535&pid=11167&?utm_source=chatgpt.com))

Prolonged ProestrusExtended proestrus phase with persistent vulvar swelling, serosanguinous discharge, and behavioral signs of estrus without ovulation.
Symptoms: Female infertility, prolonged vulvar enlargement, ongoing bloody discharge, receptive behavior despite lack of LH surge or ovulation.
TreatmentSymptomatic: Maintain vulvar and perineal hygiene, monitor appetite, activity, and comfort.
Causative: If medical management is pursued—induce ovulation using GnRH (deslorelin acetate implant or injectable 1–2 µg/kg IM once) or hCG (50 IU/kg IM once); address underlying causes such as ovarian cysts, endocrine disease, or tumors.
Supportive: Perform serial progesterone measurements (every 2–3 days) to determine ovulation timing; ultrasound ovaries to identify cystic or neoplastic changes.
Specific: Ovariohysterectomy recommended for chronic, recurrent, or neoplastic cases, or if patient is not intended for breeding. ([msdvetmanual.com](https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/the-female-canine-reproductive-system/reproductive-cycles-in-dogs?utm_source=chatgpt.com), [vin.com](https://www.vin.com/doc/?id=7060503&utm_source=chatgpt.com))

Feline Idiopathic Vestibular Syndrome Symptoms: Sudden imbalance, head tilt, disorientation, wide circling, falling, and nystagmus. Usually self-limiting within days to weeks.
Treatment Symptomatic: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID for motion sickness; Diazepam 0.2 mg/kg PO BID for severe ataxia.
Causative: Idiopathic—no definitive underlying cause identified.
Supportive: Hydration therapy, assisted feeding, padded surroundings.

Hepatorenal Disease Symptoms: Anuria or oliguria, jaundice, vomiting, PU/PD, ascites, depression. Involves both hepatic and renal failure, often secondary to chronic liver disease.
Treatment Symptomatic: Spironolactone 2 mg/kg PO SID for ascites; Furosemide 1–2 mg/kg IV BID.
Causative: Address underlying liver dysfunction if known (e.g., copper storage disease).
Supportive: IV fluids (avoid overload), antiemetics, liver-supportive diet, SAMe 20 mg/kg PO SID.

Perineal Hernia Symptoms: Hematochezia, tenesmus, swelling near anus, constipation, stranguria. Occurs due to weakening of pelvic diaphragm muscles.
Treatment Symptomatic: Lactulose 0.5 ml/kg PO BID to ease defecation.
Causative: Surgical herniorrhaphy is definitive.
Supportive: Stool softeners, low-residue diet, analgesia (buprenorphine 0.01 mg/kg IV TID).

Retinal Detachment Symptoms: Blindness, dilated pupils, absent menace response, fundic abnormalities. May occur secondary to systemic hypertension or trauma.
Treatment Symptomatic: Amlodipine 0.125–0.25 mg/kg PO SID for hypertension.
Causative: Treat underlying cause (e.g., hyperthyroidism, renal disease).
Supportive: Cage rest, routine fundic monitoring, manage systemic conditions.

Sulphonamide Toxicity Symptoms: Young animal with uveitis, fever, joint swelling, limb lameness, skin eruptions. Immune-mediated reaction due to sulfa drug exposure.
Treatment Symptomatic: Discontinue sulfonamide immediately.
Causative: Prednisone 1–2 mg/kg PO SID for immune suppression.
Supportive: IV fluids, analgesia, ophthalmic anti-inflammatories (e.g., prednisolone acetate 1% 1 drop BID).

Cranial Nerves Collapse (Toxic Origin) Symptoms: Sudden onset of ataxia, tremors, hypersalivation, seizures, cranial nerve deficits (e.g., anisocoria, facial paralysis), depression, or coma. May result from organophosphate, lead, or ethylene glycol intoxication.
Treatment Symptomatic: Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg IV for seizures; Atropine 0.04 mg/kg IV for cholinergic signs.
Causative: Administer specific antidotes if known (e.g., 2-PAM 20 mg/kg IM for organophosphates).
Supportive: IV fluids (20–30 ml/kg/day), activated charcoal 1–4 g/kg PO if early ingestion, nursing care.

Metabolic Collapse (Sepsis) Symptoms: Hypothermia or hyperthermia, tachycardia, hypotension, pale or injected mucous membranes, weak pulses, prolonged CRT, collapse. May lead to SIRS or MODS.
Treatment Symptomatic: Crystalloids 20–30 ml/kg IV bolus, vasopressors (e.g., dopamine 5–10 µg/kg/min IV) if hypotension persists.
Causative: Broad-spectrum antibiotics: Ampicillin 20 mg/kg IV TID + Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IV SID.
Supportive: Oxygen therapy, nutritional support, blood glucose and lactate monitoring.

FIV-Associated Uveitis Symptoms: Redness, photophobia, miosis, aqueous flare, iris color change, reduced vision. FIV may cause anterior or posterior uveitis due to immune dysregulation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Prednisolone acetate 1% ophthalmic drops 1 drop BID.
Causative: No cure for FIV; manage immunosuppression and secondary infections.
Supportive: Topical atropine 1% 1 drop SID to reduce ciliary spasm; regular intraocular pressure monitoring.

FIP-Associated Uveitis Symptoms: Ocular discharge, hyphema, keratic precipitates, chorioretinitis, blindness. FIP can cause granulomatous uveitis in dry form.
Treatment Symptomatic: Prednisolone acetate 1% 1 drop BID; NSAIDs contraindicated.
Causative: Antiviral treatment with GS-441524 (not yet universally approved): 4–6 mg/kg SC SID for 12 weeks (under vet guidance).
Supportive: Anti-inflammatory support, intraocular pressure checks, euthanasia may be considered in severe systemic progression.

Abdominal Distension (Lipoma) Symptoms: Palpable soft mass in abdomen, slow-growing, may displace organs, leading to mild distension or discomfort. Usually benign, composed of adipose tissue.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor size; analgesia (meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID if discomfort).
Causative: Surgical removal if mass interferes with organ function or mobility.
Supportive: Weight control, regular abdominal palpation or ultrasound every 3–6 months.

Melena, Abdominal Distension (Coagulopathy) Symptoms: Black tarry feces, pale mucous membranes, abdominal bruising or distension, internal hemorrhage. Can result from thrombocytopenia, rodenticide toxicity, or DIC.
Treatment Symptomatic: Vitamin K1 5 mg/kg PO SID for 4 weeks (if rodenticide suspected); Sucralfate 1 g PO TID.
Causative: Treat underlying cause (e.g., stop anticoagulant exposure, manage sepsis in DIC).
Supportive: Blood transfusion (fresh whole blood 10–20 ml/kg), oxygen therapy, GI protectants.

Acute Abdominal Pain (Adhesions) Symptoms: Abdominal guarding, restlessness, vomiting, inappetence, colic-like behavior, distension. May result from fibrous tissue bands post-surgery or chronic inflammation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Buprenorphine 0.01 mg/kg IV TID for pain; Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID for vomiting.
Causative: Surgical correction (laparotomy) if obstruction or ischemia occurs.
Supportive: IV fluids (LRS 20–30 ml/kg/day), rest, nutritional support as needed.

Ataxia and Incoordination (Forebrain Disease) Symptoms: Circling, altered mentation, head pressing, pacing, proprioceptive deficits, seizures, mild to moderate ataxia. May result from tumors, encephalitis, trauma, or hydrocephalus.
Treatment Symptomatic: Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg IV for seizures; Prednisolone 1–2 mg/kg/day PO for inflammation.
Causative: Manage underlying cause: e.g., surgical excision of tumor or antiviral/antimicrobial therapy.
Supportive: Nursing care, environmental safety (padding corners), anti-epileptic drugs for control.

Ataxia and Incoordination (Brain Stem) Symptoms: Cranial nerve deficits (nystagmus, head tilt), altered consciousness, severe ataxia, postural reaction deficits. Often caused by trauma, neoplasia, or infectious diseases affecting the medulla/pons.
Treatment Symptomatic: Mannitol 0.5–1.0 g/kg IV over 15–20 minutes for brain edema; supportive IV fluids 20–30 ml/kg/day.
Causative: Broad-spectrum antimicrobials (e.g., Clindamycin 10–15 mg/kg BID PO for Toxoplasma if suspected).
Supportive: Elevate head 30°, monitor vital signs, assisted feeding.

Ataxia and Incoordination (Peripheral Vestibular Disease) Symptoms: Head tilt, horizontal or rotary nystagmus, falling to one side, nausea, vomiting. Caused by otitis media/interna, trauma, or idiopathic vestibular syndrome.
Treatment Symptomatic: Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID for vomiting; Meclizine 25 mg PO SID for motion sickness.
Causative: Antibiotics for otitis: Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO SID + Clindamycin 11 mg/kg PO BID for 4–6 weeks.
Supportive: Assisted mobility, keep in safe, confined space; monitor for improvement within 7–10 days.

Vomiting (Chemotherapeutic Agents) Symptoms: Acute onset vomiting post-chemotherapy, hypersalivation, inappetence, lethargy. Common with agents like cisplatin, doxorubicin, and vincristine.
Treatment Symptomatic: Ondansetron 0.5 mg/kg IV TID or Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID 30 min before chemo.
Causative: Adjust chemotherapy protocol; consider cytoprotective agents like misoprostol or omeprazole.
Supportive: Small, bland meals post-treatment; IV fluids for hydration (maintenance 40–60 ml/kg/day).

Ataxia, Paresis, Paralysis (Peripheral Nerve) Symptoms: Weakness, proprioceptive deficits, reduced or absent reflexes, muscle atrophy. May involve traumatic neuropathy, degenerative disease, or immune-mediated polyradiculoneuritis.
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs (Carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID) for inflammation; Gabapentin 10–20 mg/kg PO TID for neuropathic pain.
Causative: Identify and remove inciting cause (e.g., compressive mass); immunosuppressants for immune-mediated conditions.
Supportive: Physiotherapy, passive range of motion exercises, padded bedding.

Labrador Retriever MyopathyAn inherited neuromuscular disorder affecting young Labrador Retrievers.
Symptoms:: Skeletal muscle atrophy, weakness, ataxia, most commonly observed in dogs under 5 months of age.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Provide warm housing and minimize physical stress.
Causative:: No definitive curative therapy available due to genetic basis of the disease.
Supportive:: L-carnitine supplementation and general supportive care to improve muscle metabolism and comfort.

Hypothermia (Malnourished)Condition of reduced core temperature due to prolonged caloric deficit and muscle wasting, resulting in impaired thermoregulation. Seen in severely underweight dogs and cats, often with concurrent weakness and lethargy.
Symptoms:: Core temperature <37.5°C, shivering, bradycardia, weak pulse, pale mucous membranes, and decreased activity.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Gradual rewarming using blankets, warm water bottles, or warm air; warmed IV fluids (38–40°C). Avoid rapid heating to prevent arrhythmias.
Causative:: Initiate nutritional rehabilitation starting at 25% Resting Energy Requirement with calorie-dense recovery diets, increasing to full requirement over 3–5 days.
Supportive:: Monitor for refeeding syndrome; check phosphate, potassium, magnesium, and glucose during feeding phase.

Hypothermia (Neurologic Disease)Failure of central thermoregulation due to neurologic injury or disease such as brain trauma, intracranial neoplasia, or stroke affecting the hypothalamus.
Symptoms:: Low body temperature, cold extremities, altered mentation, unresponsive pupils, and in severe cases, bradypnea or apnea.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Controlled rewarming with passive and active methods while maintaining cardiovascular stability.
Causative:: Treat primary neurologic condition (e.g., mannitol 0.5–1 g/kg IV for suspected intracranial hypertension, corticosteroids if indicated).
Supportive:: Monitor intracranial pressure, protect airway, maintain normoglycemia and electrolytes, and control seizures if present.

Icterus (Cirrhosis of Liver)End-stage chronic liver disease characterized by fibrosis and regenerative nodules, leading to impaired bilirubin metabolism and portal hypertension.
Symptoms:: Icterus of mucous membranes and sclera, anorexia, vomiting, ascites, weight loss, and lethargy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Lactulose 0.5 ml/kg PO BID to reduce ammonia absorption; Vitamin K1 2.5 mg/kg SC SID for 3 days for coagulopathy.
Causative:: No curative therapy—implement hepatic diet with restricted but high-quality protein, high carbohydrate content, and adequate micronutrients.
Supportive:: Spironolactone 2 mg/kg PO BID ± furosemide for ascites; hepatoprotectants such as SAMe, silymarin, or ursodeoxycholic acid (if no biliary obstruction).

Trigeminal Neuritis Idiopathic bilateral paralysis of the trigeminal motor nerve resulting in inability to close the jaw, often resolving spontaneously within weeks.
Symptoms:: Dysphagia, Nasal Stenosis, Dropped Mandible , Inability to close mouth, masticatory muscle atrophy, difficulty prehending or chewing food, excessive drooling.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Assisted feeding using syringe or offering soft/moist diets; apply lubricating eye drops every 4–6 hours to prevent corneal drying.
Causative:: No specific therapy required in most cases; monitor for spontaneous recovery.
Supportive:: Provide adequate nutrition, use soft bedding, and protect eyes from exposure keratitis.

Cranial Nerve NeuropathyNeuropathy involving cranial nerves V, VII, IX, X, or XII causing impaired chewing, swallowing, and increased risk of aspiration pneumonia.
Symptoms:: Dysphagia, Choking during eating, regurgitation, difficulty chewing or swallowing, and possible coughing fits.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Elevate head during feeding; use prokinetics such as metoclopramide 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO TID to aid gastric emptying.
Causative:: Address underlying neuropathy—glucocorticoids such as prednisolone 1 mg/kg/day PO if inflammatory etiology suspected.
Supportive:: Consider feeding tube placement (esophagostomy or gastrostomy), prevent aspiration pneumonia with broad-spectrum antibiotics if indicated.

Brain Stem DiseaseBrain stem lesions affecting swallowing centers and associated cranial nerves, often due to neoplasia, infarction, inflammation, or trauma.
Symptoms:: Dysphagia, Incoordination of swallowing, coughing during eating, and concurrent cranial nerve deficits.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Soft or liquid diet; esophagostomy tube feeding in severe cases to avoid aspiration.
Causative:: Mannitol 0.5–1 g/kg IV if increased intracranial pressure suspected; antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory therapy if infectious or inflammatory etiology identified.
Supportive:: Neurologic physiotherapy as indicated and frequent clinical reassessment.

Neurohumoral Dysregulation edemaSwelling due to altered autonomic and hormonal control of fluid balance, often secondary to heart failure, hypothyroidism, or other systemic disease.
Symptoms:: Swelling of limbs or face, fluid accumulation, lethargy, decreased urine output.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Furosemide 1–2 mg/kg IV or PO BID for fluid removal; restrict sodium intake.
Causative:: Identify and treat underlying endocrine, cardiac, or renal causes (e.g., levothyroxine 0.02 mg/kg PO BID for hypothyroidism).
Supportive:: Monitor body weight, electrolytes, and blood pressure regularly.

Postsurgical edemaLocalized swelling occurring near surgical sites due to inflammatory response from tissue manipulation or trauma.
Symptoms:: Localized soft tissue swelling near surgical site, minimal to moderate pain, possible clear discharge.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Cold compress for 5–10 minutes every 6–8 hours for the first 48 hours postoperatively.
Causative:: None typically required unless infection is suspected.
Supportive:: NSAIDs such as carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID for inflammation; monitor for secondary infection.

Malnutrition-Related Edema Edema caused by hypoalbuminemia from chronic protein deficiency or severe undernutrition.
Symptoms:: Pitting edema, ascites, muscle wasting, poor coat condition, weakness.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Gentle diuresis if fluid overload is present (Furosemide 1 mg/kg PO SID).
Causative:: Cautious nutritional rehabilitation: start at 25% RER on Day 1, increase gradually over 4–5 days.
Supportive:: Provide high-protein diet, vitamin supplementation (especially B-complex), and monitor electrolytes.

Renal HypoperfusionEdema resulting from reduced renal blood flow leading to sodium and water retention.
Symptoms:: Generalized Edemaor dependent swelling, decreased urine output, weight gain, lethargy.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Furosemide 2 mg/kg IV SID to BID; monitor for signs of dehydration.
Causative:: Restore renal perfusion with IV fluids (0.9% NaCl or balanced crystalloids at shock dose if indicated).
Supportive:: Regular blood pressure and electrolyte checks; renal diet if appropriate.

RAAS OveractivationEdema caused by excessive renin-angiotensin-aldosterone activity, resulting in sodium and water retention.
Symptoms:: Generalized or localized edema, ascites, hypertension, impaired renal function.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Furosemide 2 mg/kg PO BID.
Causative:: ACE inhibitors such as enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO SID to block RAAS activation.
Supportive:: Low-sodium diet, potassium supplementation if indicated, renal function monitoring.

Mosquito-Bite HypersensitivityAllergic dermatitis triggered by mosquito saliva proteins, most common in warm months and affecting exposed skin areas.
Symptoms:: Intense pruritus, papules, crusting lesions on nose, ears, and abdomen, often seasonal.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Diphenhydramine 2 mg/kg PO TID.
Causative:: Prevent exposure with mosquito repellents (permethrin-based for dogs; never for cats).
Supportive:: Short course of corticosteroids such as prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days in severe cases.

Flea Infestation AllergyAllergic dermatitis caused by hypersensitivity to flea saliva, often affecting the rump and tail base.
Symptoms:: Scratching, biting, hair loss, papules, presence of flea dirt or visible fleas.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Oclacitinib (Apoquel) 0.4–0.6 mg/kg PO BID for 14 days.
Causative:: Flea control with isoxazolines (e.g., fluralaner 25–56 mg/kg PO once every 12 weeks).
Supportive:: Treat all pets in the household, wash bedding, and apply environmental control measures with insect growth regulators.

Everted Laryngeal Saccules Symptoms: Dyspnea, stridor, exercise intolerance, and noisy breathing—especially in brachycephalic breeds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy, sedation (e.g., Butorphanol 0.2–0.4 mg/kg IV).
Causative: Remove everted saccules surgically to relieve airway obstruction.
Supportive: Weight management and reduce heat/exertion stressors.
Specific: Pre-op corticosteroids (Dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg IV) to reduce swelling; surgical excision under general anesthesia.

Lung Abscess Symptoms: Dyspnea, fever, lethargy, cough, and possibly hemoptysis. Lung sounds may be dull or absent over affected area.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy and IV fluids.
Causative: Drain abscess surgically or with image-guided aspiration if accessible.
Supportive: Cage rest and nutritional support.
Specific: Broad-spectrum antibiotics: Clindamycin 11 mg/kg PO BID + Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO SID for 3–6 weeks.

Pulmonary Granuloma Symptoms: Chronic dyspnea, exercise intolerance, non-productive cough; may be incidental finding on radiograph.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen as needed and corticosteroids for inflammation.
Causative: Treat underlying infectious or immune-mediated cause (e.g., fungal infection, TB, or systemic granulomatous disease).
Supportive: Monitoring and follow-up imaging.
Specific: Itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID if fungal origin suspected. Prednisolone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID if immune-mediated.

Oropharyngeal Foreign Body Symptoms: Dysphagia, drooling, pawing at mouth, gagging, anorexia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics (e.g., Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID short-term), sedation for exam.
Causative: Remove foreign object manually or endoscopically.
Supportive: Soft food diet post-removal, monitor for aspiration pneumonia.
Specific: Antibiotics if mucosal damage present: Amoxicillin-Clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID × 5–7 days.

Aerophagia Symptoms: Excessive flatulence due to swallowed air—common in anxious or brachycephalic dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Simethicone 4 mg/kg PO TID; mild sedatives if stress-related.
Causative: Manage behavior and feeding habits—slow feeding, reduce excitement during meals.
Supportive: Use puzzle feeders, elevate bowls for short-faced breeds.
Specific: Behavioral therapy may be indicated; no drug cures.

Aerophagia from Competitive Eating Behavior Symptoms: Flatulence due to rapid ingestion of food and swallowed air; more common in multi-pet households or high-anxiety feeders.
Treatment Symptomatic: Simethicone 4 mg/kg PO TID may help reduce gas discomfort.
Causative: Modify feeding behavior with slow-feeder bowls or puzzle feeders.
Supportive: Behavioral modification and stress reduction during meals.
Specific: Divide meals into smaller portions; avoid feeding near other competitive animals.

Gastrointestinal Disorders Causing Flatulence Symptoms: Excessive gas production, abdominal discomfort, or bloating—may accompany diarrhea or irregular stools.
Treatment Symptomatic: Simethicone 4 mg/kg PO TID; diet change to easily digestible food.
Causative: Diagnose and treat specific GI condition (e.g., IBD, SIBO, pancreatitis).
Supportive: Probiotics (e.g., Fortiflora 1 sachet/day) and dietary fiber (psyllium 1 tsp/day).
Specific: Metronidazole 10–15 mg/kg PO BID for 5–7 days if bacterial overgrowth suspected.

Systemic Mycoses Causing Blindness Symptoms: Sudden or progressive vision loss, dilated pupils, retinal detachment, or optic neuritis—often with systemic signs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Support ocular health with lubricants (e.g., artificial tears).
Causative: Antifungals based on organism: Fluconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO BID for 6–12 weeks.
Supportive: Manage inflammation with NSAIDs or corticosteroids cautiously.
Specific: Itraconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID if histoplasmosis or blastomycosis suspected.

Optic Nerve Hypoplasia Symptoms: Congenital blindness with small or absent optic disc; usually non-progressive.
Treatment Symptomatic: No pain; no treatment required.
Causative: No curative therapy; condition is congenital and irreversible.
Supportive: Adapt environment for blind pet—avoid rearranging furniture.
Specific: Educate owner; provide safe and predictable surroundings.

Muscle Wasting (Muscular Dystrophy) Symptoms: Progressive muscle weakness, tremors, exercise intolerance, visible muscle atrophy. Genetic in origin, especially in Golden Retrievers and Labs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Nutritional support; antioxidants like Vitamin E (10 IU/kg/day PO) and Omega-3 fatty acids.
Causative: No cure; gene therapy under experimental study.
Supportive: Controlled exercise, hydrotherapy, frequent rechecks to monitor quality of life.

Muscle Wasting (Disuse Atrophy) Symptoms: Loss of muscle mass in an unused limb or body part; normal reflexes unless complicated. Common after prolonged immobilization or orthopedic injury.
Treatment Symptomatic: Physical rehabilitation; NSAIDs (Carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID) for concurrent pain.
Causative: Reverse through controlled exercise, physiotherapy, and gradual mobilization.
Supportive: Nutritional support with high-protein diet; muscle stimulation therapy if available.

Muscle Wasting Due to Extreme Cold Exposure Symptoms: Loss of muscle mass due to chronic exposure to cold—may include lethargy and poor coat condition.
Treatment Symptomatic: Warm environment, heating pads, blankets.
Causative: Eliminate environmental exposure; provide adequate shelter.
Supportive: High-calorie diet and protein supplementation.
Specific: Multivitamin supplements and regular health monitoring.

Muscle Wasting from Dental Disease, Pregnancy, or Lactation Symptoms: Generalized muscle loss, weakness, difficulty eating or grooming in dental cases.
Treatment Symptomatic: Nutritional support—high-protein, high-calorie food.
Causative: Dental care (extractions, cleaning); manage energy needs in pregnancy/lactation.
Supportive: Feeding assistance, vitamin B-complex supplements.
Specific: Dental cleaning under anesthesia; calcium 25–50 mg/kg/day PO if deficient.

Muscle Wasting (Spinal & Peripheral Neuropathies) Symptoms: Focal or generalized weakness, loss of reflexes, decreased muscle tone, asymmetrical atrophy. May follow chronic spinal injury or degenerative neuropathies.
Treatment Symptomatic: NSAIDs (Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO SID); Gabapentin 10 mg/kg PO BID.
Causative: Surgical decompression if compressive lesion; treat metabolic causes (e.g., diabetes).
Supportive: Physical therapy, soft support surfaces, assisted ambulation.

Muscle Wasting Due to Parasitism Symptoms: Poor body condition, weight loss, visible ribs/spine, unthrifty coat.
Treatment Symptomatic: Nutritional support, deworming as needed.
Causative: Treat parasites with appropriate anthelmintics.
Supportive: Multivitamins, protein-rich diet, regular fecal checks.
Specific: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID × 3 days or Pyrantel 5–10 mg/kg PO once.

Cachexia in End-stage Renal Disease Symptoms: Severe weight and muscle loss, uremic breath, vomiting, anorexia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anti-emetics (e.g., Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC SID), appetite stimulants.
Causative: Address renal failure with appropriate fluid therapy and phosphate binders.
Supportive: Renal diet (low protein, phosphorus). Omega-3 fatty acids.
Specific: Azodyl 1 capsule/day, Aluminum hydroxide 30–90 mg/kg/day PO as phosphate binder.

Parasitic Hemoptysis (Paragonimus, Capillaria, Aelurostrongylus) Symptoms: Coughing up blood, respiratory distress, wheezing, possible lethargy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen support, cough suppressants (e.g., Butorphanol 0.2 mg/kg IV).
Causative: Identify parasite via fecal/Baermann or radiograph. Targeted antiparasitic therapy.
Supportive: Cage rest, hydration, bronchodilators (e.g., Theophylline 10 mg/kg PO BID).
Specific: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 10–14 days or Praziquantel 25 mg/kg PO SID × 3 days.

Pulmonary Abscess Symptoms: Hemoptysis, halitosis, coughing, respiratory distress, possible fever.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy, nebulization, and hydration.
Causative: Broad-spectrum antibiotics: Clindamycin 10–15 mg/kg PO BID or Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO SID for 10–21 days.
Supportive: Nutritional support and cage rest.
Specific: Surgical drainage if abscess is large or unresponsive to medical treatment.

Iatrogenic Hemoptysis Symptoms: Hemoptysis following endotracheal intubation, lung aspirate, biopsy, transtracheal wash, or bronchoscopy.
Treatment Symptomatic: Rest and oxygen therapy.
Causative: Discontinue or adjust technique causing trauma.
Supportive: Anti-inflammatory medication: Prednisolone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID for 3–5 days.
Specific: Monitor for infection and secondary complications; antibiotics if secondary infection suspected.

Proestrus Symptoms: Serosanguinous vaginal discharge, vulvar swelling, increased urination, behavioral changes.
Treatment Symptomatic: Clean vulvar area to prevent infection.
Causative: None needed—physiological phase.
Supportive: Monitor duration and behavior.
Specific: Educate owner about cycle phases and breeding timing.

Cystic Ovarian Follicles Symptoms: Prolonged estrus, persistent serosanguinous discharge, behavioral estrus.
Treatment Symptomatic: Sanitary hygiene.
Causative: Hormonal therapy: hCG 50 IU/kg IM once or GnRH 1–2 µg/kg IM once.
Supportive: Monitor hormonal response.
Specific: Ovariohysterectomy if persistent or recurrent.

Failure to Ovulate Symptoms: Prolonged estrus, lack of ovulation signs, continued serosanguinous discharge.
Treatment Symptomatic: Monitor cycle progression.
Causative: Hormonal induction: GnRH 1–2 µg/kg IM.
Supportive: Reproductive monitoring via ultrasound or progesterone levels.
Specific: Breeding management adjustment or elective spay.

Pituitary Hypofunction Symptoms: Serosanguinous discharge, anestrus or irregular cycles, failure to ovulate.
Treatment Symptomatic: Hormonal therapy based on deficiency.
Causative: Treat underlying pituitary condition if identifiable.
Supportive: Nutrition, endocrine monitoring.
Specific: Consider referral to veterinary endocrinologist.

Laryngeal and Pharyngeal Disease Symptoms: Coughing, gagging, stridor, voice changes, cyanosis, dyspnea.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy, anti-inflammatory drugs.
Causative: Surgical correction for laryngeal paralysis or mass removal.
Supportive: Soft food, avoid neck pressure, corticosteroids if inflammation present.
Specific: Prednisolone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID for 5 days.

Atrioventricular Valve Disease Symptoms: Exercise intolerance, murmur, coughing, dyspnea, syncope, cardiomegaly.
Treatment Symptomatic: Diuretics (e.g., Furosemide 2 mg/kg PO BID).
Causative: Address valve degeneration—medical management.
Supportive: ACE inhibitors (e.g., Enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO SID), Pimobendan 0.25–0.3 mg/kg PO BID.
Specific: Monitor renal values and electrolytes during therapy.

Bacteremia or Septicemia (Dog, Cat) Symptoms: Uveitis, lethargy, fever, tachycardia, injected mucous membranes.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical anti-inflammatory (e.g., Prednisolone acetate ophthalmic drops BID).
Causative: Broad-spectrum IV antibiotics: Ampicillin-sulbactam 20–40 mg/kg IV TID or Cefoxitin 22 mg/kg IV TID.
Supportive: IV fluids, temperature regulation.
Specific: Culture to guide therapy; treat underlying source (e.g., infected wound or abscess).

Congenital Heart Disease Symptoms: Murmur, poor growth, exercise intolerance, syncope, cyanosis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen therapy during crisis.
Causative: Surgical or catheter-based correction (e.g., PDA ligation, balloon valvuloplasty).
Supportive: Cardiac medications depending on defect type.
Specific: Propranolol 0.2–0.6 mg/kg PO TID for pulmonic stenosis.

Nematode Larval Migration Symptoms: Uveitis, blindness, retinal granulomas, discomfort, photophobia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical corticosteroids (e.g., Pred Acetate ophthalmic BID), atropine for ciliary spasm.
Causative: Antiparasitic treatment: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 10–14 days.
Supportive: Ocular monitoring and systemic anti-inflammatories if needed.
Specific: Consider referral to ophthalmologist for intraocular involvement.

Ovarian DysgenesisCongenital ovarian maldevelopment leading to non-functional or absent ovaries.
Symptoms:: Female infertility, absence of estrus cycles, underdeveloped secondary sex characteristics.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Perform hormonal assays (LH, FSH, estradiol, progesterone).
Causative:: No curative treatment as the condition is congenital.
Supportive:: Provide genetic counseling for breeding animals.
Specific:: Spaying may be recommended to prevent complications; educate owners on prognosis.

Renal Hematuria of WeimaranersBreed-specific renal bleeding disorder due to glomerular basement membrane defects.
Symptoms:: Intermittent, non-painful hematuria in juvenile Weimaraners.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Regular urinalysis and monitoring for proteinuria or disease progression.
Causative:: No definitive cure—manage contributing factors such as hypertension.
Supportive:: Renal diets (low protein, phosphorus restricted), omega-3 fatty acids supplementation.
Specific:: ACE inhibitors (e.g., enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO SID) if proteinuria develops.

Vascular InfarctIschemic infarction affecting brainstem or vestibular structures such as the cerebellum or medulla.
Symptoms:: Acute head tilt, imbalance, ataxia, or circling without peripheral vestibular signs.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Maintain hydration and provide supportive care to prevent complications from recumbency.
Causative:: Treat underlying cause if identified (e.g., hypertension: amlodipine 0.1–0.2 mg/kg PO SID).
Supportive:: Short course of anti-inflammatory therapy (e.g., prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID for 3–5 days).
Specific:: Physical rehabilitation and neurologic monitoring.

EstrusPhysiological bleeding associated with the normal estrous cycle in intact females.
Symptoms:: Hematuria-like discharge, vulvar swelling, behavioral changes.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: No treatment required if discharge is consistent with normal estrus.
Supportive:: Monitor for behavioral and physical signs of ovulation.
Specific:: Educate owner regarding estrous phases; spay if breeding is not planned.

Preputial or Penile TraumaExternal genital trauma due to mating injury, foreign object, or self-trauma.
Symptoms:: Hematuria, visible bleeding, licking or guarding genital area, swelling.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Gently clean area with antiseptic (e.g., dilute chlorhexidine 0.05%).
Causative:: Address source of trauma (e.g., neuter overly active males if behavioral).
Supportive:: NSAIDs (e.g., carprofen 2.2 mg/kg PO BID) for inflammation; antibiotics if infection suspected (e.g., amoxicillin-clavulanate 12.5 mg/kg PO BID for 7–10 days).
Specific:: Use Elizabethan collar to prevent licking; reassess if bleeding persists.

Acute Moist Dermatitis Symptoms: Rapidly developing painful, pruritic erosions with alopecia, erythema, and exudation. Common on tail base, hind legs, trunk, neck, and face. Often triggered by flea allergy, otitis, or trauma; common in warm, humid climates and dense-coated breeds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Clip surrounding hair. Clean with 0.05% chlorhexidine or 1:10 diluted povidone-iodine. Benzoyl peroxide shampoo (2.5%)—apply and leave on for 10–15 minutes, 2–3 times weekly.
Causative: Treat underlying cause—e.g., flea allergy dermatitis: Administer Isoxazoline (e.g., Fluralaner 25–50 mg/kg PO every 12 weeks). Otitis: Treat ear infection accordingly.
Supportive: Topical aluminum acetate 2% (Burow's solution) compresses. Administer systemic corticosteroids: Prednisolone 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID for 3–5 days. If secondary bacterial infection: Cephalexin 22 mg/kg PO BID for 3 weeks.
Specific: Use Elizabethan collar to prevent self-trauma; monitor for recurrence.

Premature Ovarian FailureIdiopathic or immune-mediated ovarian insufficiency leading to early loss of reproductive function.
Symptoms:: Female infertility, no estrus cycling.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Perform hormonal testing (FSH, LH, estradiol, progesterone) and karyotyping.
Causative:: No known curative treatment.
Supportive:: Hormone replacement therapy trial: Estriol 0.5–1 mg/kg PO SID (for dogs, if indicated); use under specialist guidance.
Specific:: Genetic counseling if suspected heritable trait; advise against breeding.

Drug-Induced HematuriaOften associated with cyclophosphamide or NSAIDs causing sterile hemorrhagic cystitis.
Symptoms:: Hematuria without infection; dysuria or pollakiuria may also be present.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Discontinue causative agent (e.g., cyclophosphamide).
Causative:: Replace with alternative chemotherapy or immunosuppressive agent.
Supportive:: Maintain hydration. Administer Mesna (2-mercaptoethane sulfonate): 20 mg/kg IV just before and at 4 and 8 hours after cyclophosphamide if it must be continued.
Specific:: Monitor urinalysis regularly; consider urinary protectants such as cranberry extract or pentosan polysulfate.

Cystic FolliclesAbnormal persistence of estrogen-secreting ovarian follicles disrupting the estrous cycle.
Symptoms:: Female infertility, prolonged or persistent estrus behavior.
TreatmentSymptomatic:: Administer hCG 100–500 IU IM once, or GnRH analog (e.g., Deslorelin 1–4 µg/kg SC). Recheck hormone levels in 7–10 days.
Causative:: Remove cystic ovaries if non-responsive.
Supportive:: Monitor reproductive behavior and hormone cycles.
Specific:: Ovariectomy (surgical removal) is curative in refractory or breeding-inappropriate cases.

Extrahepatic Biliary Tract Rupture Symptoms: Abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, anorexia, and icterus. Caused by rupture of the gallbladder, cystic duct, hepatic ducts, or common bile duct due to trauma or infection, leading to bile leakage into the abdomen.
Treatment Symptomatic: Stabilize with IV fluids, correct electrolyte imbalances. Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., Ampicillin-sulbactam 22–30 mg/kg IV TID + Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IV SID). Analgesia with opioids (e.g., Methadone 0.2–0.4 mg/kg IV q4–6h).
Causative: Surgical exploration and repair. Options: cholecystectomy, ductal ligation, or reanastomosis, depending on site.
Supportive: Post-op monitoring of bilirubin, hepatic enzymes. Nutritional support and hepatoprotectants (e.g., S-adenosylmethionine 18–20 mg/kg PO SID).

Entropion Symptoms: Blepharospasm, epiphora, corneal ulceration or vascularization. Inward eyelid rolling, either developmental (in Shar-Peis, Bulldogs) or acquired (due to pain or scarring).
Treatment Symptomatic: Lubricants (e.g., artificial tears QID), topical antibiotic-steroid combo (e.g., Neomycin-polymyxin-dexamethasone TID), atropine ointment for pain.
Causative: Temporary tacking sutures with 3-0 nonabsorbable suture if young or spastic form. Definitive surgical correction (Hotz-Celsus procedure) once mature.
Supportive: Monitor sutures for 2–3 weeks. Prevent corneal trauma with e-collar.

Ectropion Symptoms: Conjunctivitis, epiphora, debris in lower fornix, keratitis. Outward eyelid eversion, often congenital (e.g., Bloodhounds) or due to facial nerve paralysis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Lubricants (e.g., carboxymethylcellulose TID), clean eyelids with sterile saline or chlorhexidine pads BID.
Causative: Surgical correction for persistent or ulcerative cases—wedge resection of lower lid or lateral canthoplasty.
Supportive: Monitor ocular discharge and keratitis. Use artificial tears as maintenance therapy post-op.

Macropalpebral Fissure Symptoms: Excessive scleral exposure, pigmentary/ulcerative keratitis, incomplete blinking, mucoid discharge. Caused by excessive palpebral fissure length and poor lid-globe conformation, often with lagophthalmos.
Treatment Symptomatic: Apply artificial tear ointments QID (e.g., hyaluronate-based). Use antibiotic eye drops if secondary conjunctivitis present.
Causative: Surgical options: permanent lateral tarsorrhaphy, Roberts-Jensen pocket, or lateral canthoplasty (e.g., Wyman technique).
Supportive: Post-op lubrication for 4–6 weeks. Protect eyes from wind and debris. Monitor for ulcer resolution.

Distichiasis Symptoms: Epiphora, blepharospasm, conjunctivitis, keratitis. Abnormal hair growth from meibomian glands at lid margin. Often bilateral and asymptomatic in some breeds (e.g., Cocker Spaniels).
Treatment Symptomatic: Lubricants (e.g., Genteal or Refresh Optive) QID. Treat corneal ulcers with antibiotic ointments (e.g., oxytetracycline BID–TID).
Causative: Manual epilation every 4–6 weeks (temporary). Cryoepilation with nitrous oxide or CO₂ probe (cool to −20°C) for long-term control.
Supportive: Monitor for regrowth. Re-evaluate corneal health every 2–4 weeks post-op.

Flea Allergic Dermatitis Symptoms: Moderate to severe pruritus, papules, erythema, alopecia, excoriations, hyperpigmentation, and scaling. Lesions commonly appear on the tail head, caudal thighs, and forelimbs. Hypersensitivity reaction to flea salivary allergens, most often seasonal but may occur year-round in warm climates.
Treatment Symptomatic: Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO SID × 5 days, then taper over 2 weeks. Triamcinolone 0.0125% spray SID × 7 days, then QOD for 7 days.
Causative: Strict flea control with adulticides and insect growth regulators (IGRs). Use 2% permethrin (e.g., Snappy Dip) twice weekly in dogs. Warning: Permethrin is highly toxic to cats—use feline-safe products (e.g., fluralaner or selamectin).
Supportive: Treat the environment with insecticides and vacuum frequently. Wash bedding weekly. Use monthly preventatives (e.g., fipronil, imidacloprid). Monitor for pyoderma or Malassezia overgrowth; treat as needed.

Malassezia Dermatitis Symptoms: Pruritus, waxy otitis (especially in cats), chin acne, scaling dermatosis, face rubbing, head shaking, foot chewing, erythema, alopecia, hyperpigmentation, greasy skin, and rancid odor. Caused by overgrowth of Malassezia pachydermatis, often secondary to allergic or endocrine disease.
Treatment Symptomatic: Bathe with antifungal shampoos 2–3 times per week for 2–4 weeks. Options include selenium sulfide 1%, 2–4% chlorhexidine, 1–2% miconazole, or ketoconazole-containing shampoos. Allow 10–15 min contact time.
Causative: Oral antifungals:

Ketoconazole 5–10 mg/kg PO SID–BID × 3–4 weeks (dogs only).
Itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO SID × 7 days on/7 days off for 3 cycles.
Fluconazole 2.5–5 mg/kg PO SID × 3–4 weeks.
Terbinafine 20–30 mg/kg PO SID × 3–4 weeks.

Supportive: Treat underlying allergies (food, atopy, flea allergy). Address concurrent bacterial infections if present. Maintain long-term skin hygiene with medicated wipes or periodic baths.

Toxocara Canis Larval Migrans Symptoms: Uveitis. Caused by migration of Toxocara larvae through ocular tissues; typically seen in dogs and cats.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical corticosteroids (e.g., prednisolone acetate) and atropine for inflammation and pain.
Causative: Albendazole 25 mg/kg PO SID for 5–7 days to eliminate larvae.
Supportive: Monitor intraocular pressure, repeat deworming protocols, manage systemic effects if present.

Dirofilaria Larvae (Ocular Form) Symptoms: Uveitis. Associated with aberrant migration of Dirofilaria larvae into the eye; rare but notable in dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anti-inflammatory eye drops (e.g., corticosteroids), atropine for mydriasis.
Causative: Macrocyclic lactones (e.g., ivermectin), with adulticide therapy if systemic infection is confirmed.
Supportive: Monitor for recurrence, manage secondary inflammation or glaucoma.

Fetal Death Symptoms: Mucopurulent vaginal discharge. Associated with intrauterine fetal demise and possible retained fetuses.
Treatment Symptomatic: Broad-spectrum antibiotics to manage infection risk.
Causative: Induce parturition medically or perform ovariohysterectomy depending on status.
Supportive: Provide IV fluids, monitor for sepsis, and offer nutritional support.

Septicemia or Endotoxemia Symptoms: Vomiting. Vomiting may result from systemic inflammation, endotoxin exposure, or gastrointestinal barrier disruption.
Treatment Symptomatic: Use antiemetics (e.g., maropitant), gastroprotectants, and monitor hydration.
Causative: Identify and treat source of infection or toxin (e.g., antibiotics, surgery for abscesses).
Supportive: Aggressive IV fluids, electrolyte therapy, and nutritional management.

Periodontal Disease Symptoms: Halitosis. Often due to gingivitis, periodontitis, or dental abscesses in dogs and cats.
Treatment Symptomatic: Dental cleaning under anesthesia; antibiotics if indicated.
Causative: Extract diseased teeth, treat underlying periodontal pathology.
Supportive: Institute routine dental hygiene, dental diets, and oral care products.

Dental Calculus Symptoms: Halitosis. Mineralized plaque contributing to oral odor and potential periodontal disease.
Treatment Symptomatic: Dental scaling and polishing.
Causative: Remove calculus; assess for and treat gingival pockets.
Supportive: Encourage regular dental cleaning, enzymatic toothpaste, and dental chews.

Erythema Multiforme Symptoms: Genital dermatoses. Immune-mediated reaction leading to target-like skin lesions, including on genitalia.
Treatment Symptomatic: Systemic corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone) or antihistamines.
Causative: Discontinue offending drug or treat underlying infection if identified.
Supportive: Support skin healing with topical care and prevent trauma.

Fixed Drug Eruption (Pigmented Erythema) Symptoms: Genital dermatoses. Localized reaction to medications, resulting in dark, persistent skin lesions on genital areas.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical corticosteroids or tacrolimus cream.
Causative: Withdraw causative drug.
Supportive: Minimize sun exposure, apply emollients to support skin recovery.

Buccal Abscesses Symptoms: Ptyalism (excessive salivation). Due to pain or obstruction from abscesses in the mouth or jaw area.
Treatment Symptomatic: Analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., meloxicam).
Causative: Surgical drainage and/or tooth extraction; antibiotics (e.g., clindamycin).
Supportive: Use of soft foods, oral rinses, and monitor for reinfection.

Motion Sickness Symptoms: Vomiting. Caused by overstimulation of the vestibular system during motion, commonly seen in young dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Maropitant 1 mg/kg PO SID before travel.
Causative: Gradual habituation to travel stimuli and behavior modification.
Supportive: Withhold food 6–12 hours before travel; ensure ventilation and comfort during trips.

Congenital Intranasal Deformities Symptoms: Snoring. Often due to structural malformations of nasal turbinates, common in brachycephalic breeds.
Treatment Symptomatic: Environmental management (humidification, weight control).
Causative: Corrective rhinoplasty or stenotic nares surgery.
Supportive: Avoid exertion in hot/humid conditions; monitor for secondary infections.

Intranasal or Extraluminal Masses Symptoms: Snoring. Masses obstructing nasal airflow may originate from polyps, tumors, or granulomas.
Treatment Symptomatic: Anti-inflammatory therapy (e.g., prednisolone) if swelling is present.
Causative: Surgical excision, biopsy, or radiation depending on mass type.
Supportive: Oxygen supplementation and nasal flushes as needed.

Necrolytic Migratory Erythema Symptoms: Erosions and ulcers of skin and mucous membranes. Associated with metabolic epidermal necrosis and underlying liver disease in dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Topical antiseptics and emollients for lesions.
Causative: Manage underlying hepatic dysfunction and supplement zinc, essential fatty acids, and amino acids.
Supportive: Nutritional support and regular skin evaluations.

Pulmonary Fibrosis Symptoms: Dyspnea. Progressive interstitial lung disease leading to respiratory compromise, often idiopathic.
Treatment Symptomatic: Bronchodilators and oxygen therapy as needed.
Causative: No definitive cure; corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone 0.5 mg/kg PO SID) may slow progression.
Supportive: Limit exercise, monitor oxygenation, and provide low-stress environment.

Acidosis Symptoms: Dyspnea. Metabolic or respiratory acidosis increases respiratory drive and causes labored breathing.
Treatment Symptomatic: Oxygen supplementation and correction of hydration status.
Causative: Address primary cause (e.g., diabetic ketoacidosis, renal failure) with appropriate fluids and therapy.
Supportive: Monitor blood gases, electrolytes, and acid-base status frequently.

Congenital Deafness (In Utero Infection) Symptoms: Deafness. May result from bacterial damage to the cochlea during fetal development.
Treatment Symptomatic: None available for restoring hearing.
Causative: Not reversible once cochlear damage occurs.
Supportive: Train with visual or vibrational cues; protect from hazards due to hearing loss.

Hepatic Insufficiency Symptoms: Polyuria and polydipsia. Impaired liver function may interfere with ADH metabolism and renal concentrating ability.
Treatment Symptomatic: Control water intake and monitor hydration.
Causative: Treat underlying hepatic disease (e.g., lactulose, SAMe, low-protein diet).
Supportive: Regular monitoring of liver enzymes, bile acids, and ammonia levels.

Cranial Nerve Paralysis Symptoms: Ptyalism, ear and lip droop, abnormal philtrum position, absent menace reflex, hemifacial spasm. Often involves facial (VII), vestibulocochlear (VIII), or other cranial nerves.
Treatment Symptomatic: Artificial tears to prevent corneal drying; analgesics if needed.
Causative: Address underlying cause (e.g., trauma, otitis media, neoplasia) with antimicrobials or surgery.
Supportive: Physical therapy, soft diet if mastication is impaired, protect affected eye from injury.

Masseter Muscle Atrophy Symptoms: Ptyalism (excessive salivation). Often associated with trigeminal nerve dysfunction or chronic masticatory muscle myositis.
Treatment Symptomatic: Soft food diet and mouth hygiene.
Causative: Address underlying immune-mediated myositis with corticosteroids (e.g., Prednisolone 1 mg/kg PO SID).
Supportive: Physical therapy, nutritional support, and pain management.

Pyloric Outflow Obstruction Symptoms: Regurgitation. Due to narrowing of the pyloric canal, often from muscular hypertrophy or inflammation.
Treatment Symptomatic: Antiemetics (e.g., Maropitant 1 mg/kg PO SID), acid reducers (e.g., Omeprazole 1 mg/kg PO SID).
Causative: Surgical correction via pyloromyotomy or pyloroplasty.
Supportive: Feed small, frequent, low-fat meals; monitor hydration.

Hiatal Hernia Symptoms: Regurgitation. Protrusion of abdominal contents through the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity, often worsens with stress or excitement.
Treatment Symptomatic: Prokinetics (e.g., Metoclopramide 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO TID), antacids, and positioning during feeding.
Causative: Surgical herniorrhaphy for persistent cases.
Supportive: Feed elevated and small meals; monitor for aspiration pneumonia.

Conductive Deafness Symptoms: Deafness. Due to obstruction or damage to the tympanic membrane or ossicles.
Treatment Symptomatic: No specific symptomatic treatment for hearing loss.
Causative: Treat underlying otitis media/interna with antibiotics (e.g., Clindamycin 10–12 mg/kg PO BID for 10–21 days) or surgery.
Supportive: Environmental modifications for safety; consider vibration-based training tools.

Iron-Rich Diet Symptoms: Melena (black tarry feces). Dark stools may be due to non-pathologic iron pigment, not bleeding.
Treatment Symptomatic: Discontinue or adjust iron supplementation.
Causative: Identify and correct dietary imbalances.
Supportive: Monitor for GI signs; educate owner on differentiation from GI bleeding.

Parasitic Infestation Symptoms: Melena, hematochezia. Caused by intestinal parasites like whipworms, hookworms, and coccidia leading to mucosal bleeding.
Treatment Symptomatic: Fluids and GI protectants (e.g., sucralfate 1 g/animal PO TID).
Causative: Anthelmintics: Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID x 3 days; Sulfadimethoxine for coccidia 55 mg/kg PO SID.
Supportive: Nutritional support, fecal monitoring, and hygiene control to prevent reinfection.

Protozoal Enteritis Symptoms: Melena. Protozoa such as Giardia or Cystoisospora may cause mucosal damage and bleeding.
Treatment Symptomatic: GI support with fluids and protectants.
Causative: Metronidazole 25 mg/kg PO BID for 5–7 days or Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO SID for 3–5 days.
Supportive: Rehydration, fecal rechecks, disinfection of environment.

Mast Cell Tumor Symptoms: Melena and generalized hyperemia. Histamine release from tumors causes gastric ulceration and vasodilation.
Treatment Symptomatic: H2 blockers (Famotidine 0.5 mg/kg PO BID), sucralfate, anti-emetics.
Causative: Surgical excision, chemotherapy (e.g., Vinblastine 2 mg/m² IV weekly), or TKIs.
Supportive: Regular CBC/chemistry monitoring; prevent ulcer complications.

Nasal or Oral Tumor Symptoms: Melena. Occult bleeding from tumors may present as black feces if swallowed.
Treatment Symptomatic: GI protectants and blood transfusion if anemic.
Causative: Surgical excision or radiation therapy based on tumor type.
Supportive: Pain management and nutritional support.

Causes of Decreased Calcium (Ca) Levels Hypoparathyroidism, acute pancreatitis, chronic kidney disease, hypoalbuminemia, ethylene glycol toxicity, nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism, eclampsia, intestinal malabsorption, phosphate enema toxicity, transfusion with citrate anticoagulant, sepsis, critical illness, hypomagnesemia, vitamin D deficiency, rickets, protein-losing enteropathy, liver failure, hypercalcitoninism, chemotherapy, prolonged diuretic use.

Causes of Elevated Calcium (Ca) Levels Primary/secondary hyperparathyroidism, hypercalcemia of malignancy (lymphoma, anal sac adenocarcinoma, multiple myeloma), vitamin D toxicity, Chronic kidney disease (CKD), Addison's disease, granulomatous diseases (blastomycosis, histoplasmosis), idiopathic hypercalcemia (esp. cats), bone osteolysis, apocrine gland adenocarcinoma, thiazide use, dehydration, hyperproteinemia, aluminum toxicity, immobilization, excessive supplementation.

Causes of Atrial Fibrillation Definition: Atrial fibrillation is a cardiac arrhythmia characterized by rapid, irregular atrial electrical activity.
Common Causes: Age, hypertension, coronary artery disease, heart failure, valvular heart disease (e.g., mitral), congenital heart defects, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, left atrial enlargement, obesity, diabetes, stimulants (caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines), chronic lung disease, kidney disease, infections (e.g., pneumonia).

Mitral Insufficiency Symptoms: Cough, dyspnea (especially during exertion), exercise intolerance, syncope, tachycardia, murmur at the left apex, pulmonary edema, ascites (in advanced cases). Often develops gradually and is most common in older, small-breed dogs.
Treatment Symptomatic: Diuretics such as Furosemide 2–4 mg/kg PO SID-BID to control pulmonary edema; ACE inhibitors like Enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO SID.
Causative: Address underlying causes when possible. For infective endocarditis, antibiotics such as Amoxicillin-clavulanate 20 mg/kg PO BID for 4–6 weeks. Myocardial support with Pimobendan 0.25–0.3 mg/kg PO BID.
Supportive: Oxygen therapy during respiratory distress, dietary sodium restriction, exercise restriction, and regular cardiac monitoring.

Causes of Mitral Insufficiency
Mitral valve prolapse,
Rheumatic heart disease,
Infective endocarditis,
Congenital heart defects,
Myocardial infarction,
Dilated cardiomyopathy,
Age-related mitral valve degeneration.မမမ

Pregnancy termination in catsA medical or surgical intervention to terminate unwanted or high-risk pregnancies in cats.
Indications:: Unwanted mating, risk to maternal health, genetic disorders, population control.
Symptoms/Presentation:: Confirmed pregnancy via ultrasound or palpation; owner request for termination.
TreatmentMedical:: Aglepristone 10 mg/kg SC on days 0 and 1, repeat on day 7 if needed; Prostaglandins (e.g., cloprostenol 1–5 µg/kg SC q48h) for luteolysis and expulsion; Cabergoline 5 µg/kg PO SID as adjunct to inhibit prolactin support.
Surgical:: Ovariohysterectomy (OHE) is definitive and prevents recurrence.
Supportive:: Monitor for complications (metritis, retained fetuses, anemia). Provide antibiotics and analgesics as needed. Recheck with ultrasound to confirm complete termination.
Prognosis:: Excellent with surgical OHE; good with medical management if closely monitored.

Pregnancy termination in dogsA medical or surgical intervention to terminate unwanted or high-risk pregnancies in dogs.
Indications:: Unwanted mating, health risk to dam, hereditary disease concerns, population control.
Symptoms/Presentation:: Confirmed pregnancy via ultrasound, abdominal palpation, or hormone testing; owner request for termination.
TreatmentMedical:: Aglepristone 10 mg/kg SC on days 0 and 1, repeat on day 7 if needed; Prostaglandins (cloprostenol 1–3 µg/kg SC q24–48h) for luteolysis; Cabergoline 5 µg/kg PO SID to suppress prolactin and support termination.
Surgical:: Ovariohysterectomy (OHE) is definitive, prevents recurrence, and eliminates risk of pyometra.
Supportive:: Monitor for side effects (vomiting, panting, restlessness, uterine infection). Provide antibiotics and analgesics when required. Follow-up ultrasound ensures complete termination.
Prognosis:: Excellent with surgical OHE; medical termination successful in most cases if protocol followed correctly.

Items found: 30

Scroll position: 0px

Press Esc to clear search

Professional Veterinary Blogger

Professional Veterinary Blogger